Cosmic War, Gender and the Passion of Perpetua
I. Introduction:
Cosmic War
Christians were sporadically as well as heavily persecuted by the Romans from 64 CE until the year 260 CE. During this trying time, apocalypticism was prevalent in Christian communities, which is not an uncommon phenomenon. Apocalypticism usually refers to the religious belief that the end of the world is coming, in which God will enact his judgment by condemning those who transgressed him and rewarding his faithful servants. The apocalypse would bring an end to the suffering in the world and the promise of a better life, also known as paradise. However, the apocalypse was not only about God punishing the wicked and saving the just, it also concerned the battle between Good and Evil, called the Cosmic War.
In Cosmic War, the side of Good is the side of God while the side of Evil is the side of Satan. During the persecutions, Christian martyrs thought of themselves in some cases as the warriors of God. In contrast, their Roman persecutors were vilified as agents of Satan. The only way the Christians believed they could conquer the Romans was to remain faithful to God by choosing to die in his name. If the Christians chose to live instead, Satan won the battle. Paul Middleton, author of Radical Martyrdom and Cosmic Conflict in Early Christianity, argued that "...in the Apocalypse, the call for Christians 'to conquer' always denotes a call to achieve death through martyrdom" (Middleton, 161). He goes on to mention that "As Christians conquer the beast by their blood, they also conquer death itself, for paradoxically the call to death is in reality the call to life" (Middleton, 168). In contrast, if a Christian were to choose life instead, they would not go to heaven but be punished with the second, or eternal death.
Christians did not come up with the idea of conquering for God by themselves though, there are actually a few chapters in the Bible in which this call to conquer is explicitly mentioned. In the Revelation to John, he discussed the inevitable suffering that Christians might have to face:
I know your tribulation and your poverty (but you are rich) and the slander of those who say they are Jews and are not, but are a synagogue of Satan. Do not fear what you are about to suffer. Behold, the devil is about to throw some of you into prison, that you may be tested and for ten days you will have tribulation. Be faithful unto death, and I will give you the crown of life. He who has an ear, let him hear what the Spirit says to the churches. He who conquers shall not be hurt by the second death (Revelation 2:9-11).
And I heard a voice from heaven saying, "Write this: Blessed are the dead who die in the Lord henceforth." "Blessed indeed," says the Spirit, "that they may rest from their labors, for their deeds follow them!" (Revelation 14:13).
These are but only two of the many passages in Revelation in which Christians are persuaded to die for Christ. In many other passages in Revelation, Christians are presented with rewards if they answer the call to conquer. Here are a few examples of the rewards promised to those who were faithful to God in life and especially in death:
• They will eat of the tree of life (receive the crown of life)
• They will not be hurt by second death
• They will receive hidden manna, a white stone and a new secret name
• They will receive power over the nations
• They will rule with a rod of iron
• They will receive the morning star
• They will be clad in white garments
• Their names will not be blotted out of the book of life but rather confessed before Father and holy angels
•They will become a pillar in the temple and the name of God and Christ’s own new name will be written on them
The Christians believed that they would be rewarded if they died for Christ and during the persecutions they needed the promise of a reward to keep them strong enough to make it through their suffering. If one was subjected to brutality and expected to die for their faith, having a reward in the end would most likely help to make the experience worthwhile for them. In this sense, Cosmic War was a way for the Christians to persevere and remain true to themselves and their beliefs during the persecutions.
However, the Book of Revelation is not the only book in the Bible in which the call to conquer is present. In the First Letter of Peter, he mentions that Christians will have to suffer and they should not lose hope in God.
But if when you do right and suffer for it you take it patiently, you have God's approval. For to this you have been called, because Christ also suffered for you, leaving you an example, that you should follow in his steps (Peter 2:20-21).
Since therefore Christ suffered in the flesh, arm yourselves with the same though, for whoever has suffered in the flesh has ceased from sin, so as to live for the rest of the time in the flesh no longer by human passions but by the will of God (Peter 4:1-2).
Beloved, do not be surprised at the fiery ordeal which comes upon you to prove you, as though something strange were happening to you. But rejoice in so far as you share Christ's sufferings, that you may also rejoice and be glad when his glory is revealed. If you are reproached for the name of Christ, you are blessed, because the spirit of glory and of God rests upon you. But let none of you suffer as a murderer, or a thief, or a wrongdoer, or a mischief-maker; yet if one suffers as a Christian, let him not be ashamed, but under that name let him glorify God (Peter 4:12-16).
Like the Book of Revelations, the First Letter of Peter gives suffering Christians a calling and hope for a better life. These books in the Bible have obviously inspired Christians to put on the armor of God and fight in his name. A few examples of famous Christian martyrs throughout history include the martyrs of Vienne and Lyons, Polycarp as well as Marian and James. In these martyr narratives, the idea of apocalypticism is evident due to the key role that Satan plays as the adversary of the martyrs.
In the narrative of the martyrs of Vienne and Lyons, it is mentioned that Satan, has targeted the martyrs and has begun to train his own to fight against them. In Paul Middleton's Martyrdom: A Guide for the Perplexed, he argues that this martyr narrative has "an apocalyptic opening (1.3-6), where the scene is set with Satan about to manifest his final appearance. The combatants are God's servants armed with God's grace, prepared to charge into battle against the slaves of Satan" (Middleton, 63). In this narrative, the Christian woman, Blandina was filled with so much strength through God that she withstood torture for a whole day without being killed.
In the martyrdom of Polycarp, Polycarp was arrested for being a Christian and sentenced to be burned alive. However, after Polycarp prayed to God, the flames did not harm him and he was stabbed instead. "The jealous and envious Evil One, who is the adversary of the race of the just, realizing the greatness of his testimony, his unblemished career from the beginning, and seeing him now crowned with the garland of immortality and the winner of an incontestable prize, prevented us even from taking up the poor body, though so many were eager to do so and to have a share in his holy flesh" (17).
The Martyrdom of Saints Marian and James, the Devil is mentioned frequently as the enemy. "...because of the blind madness of the pagans and the action of military officials, the onslaughts of persecution surged like the waves of this world, and the fury of the ravening Devil gaped with hungry jaws to weaken the faith of the just" (2). The martyrs Marian and James were described as possessing the signs that the "divine choice" had fallen on them and that they knew they had to die for Christ. In this martyr narrative, the Romans are also explicitly described as the soldiers of Satan, "Then they were assailed by the garrison soldiery with many cruel tortures, soldiers who are murderers of the just and the good, assisted in their viciousness by the centurion and the magistrates of Cirta, priests indeed of the Devil" (5).
Christians were sporadically as well as heavily persecuted by the Romans from 64 CE until the year 260 CE. During this trying time, apocalypticism was prevalent in Christian communities, which is not an uncommon phenomenon. Apocalypticism usually refers to the religious belief that the end of the world is coming, in which God will enact his judgment by condemning those who transgressed him and rewarding his faithful servants. The apocalypse would bring an end to the suffering in the world and the promise of a better life, also known as paradise. However, the apocalypse was not only about God punishing the wicked and saving the just, it also concerned the battle between Good and Evil, called the Cosmic War.
In Cosmic War, the side of Good is the side of God while the side of Evil is the side of Satan. During the persecutions, Christian martyrs thought of themselves in some cases as the warriors of God. In contrast, their Roman persecutors were vilified as agents of Satan. The only way the Christians believed they could conquer the Romans was to remain faithful to God by choosing to die in his name. If the Christians chose to live instead, Satan won the battle. Paul Middleton, author of Radical Martyrdom and Cosmic Conflict in Early Christianity, argued that "...in the Apocalypse, the call for Christians 'to conquer' always denotes a call to achieve death through martyrdom" (Middleton, 161). He goes on to mention that "As Christians conquer the beast by their blood, they also conquer death itself, for paradoxically the call to death is in reality the call to life" (Middleton, 168). In contrast, if a Christian were to choose life instead, they would not go to heaven but be punished with the second, or eternal death.
Christians did not come up with the idea of conquering for God by themselves though, there are actually a few chapters in the Bible in which this call to conquer is explicitly mentioned. In the Revelation to John, he discussed the inevitable suffering that Christians might have to face:
I know your tribulation and your poverty (but you are rich) and the slander of those who say they are Jews and are not, but are a synagogue of Satan. Do not fear what you are about to suffer. Behold, the devil is about to throw some of you into prison, that you may be tested and for ten days you will have tribulation. Be faithful unto death, and I will give you the crown of life. He who has an ear, let him hear what the Spirit says to the churches. He who conquers shall not be hurt by the second death (Revelation 2:9-11).
And I heard a voice from heaven saying, "Write this: Blessed are the dead who die in the Lord henceforth." "Blessed indeed," says the Spirit, "that they may rest from their labors, for their deeds follow them!" (Revelation 14:13).
These are but only two of the many passages in Revelation in which Christians are persuaded to die for Christ. In many other passages in Revelation, Christians are presented with rewards if they answer the call to conquer. Here are a few examples of the rewards promised to those who were faithful to God in life and especially in death:
• They will eat of the tree of life (receive the crown of life)
• They will not be hurt by second death
• They will receive hidden manna, a white stone and a new secret name
• They will receive power over the nations
• They will rule with a rod of iron
• They will receive the morning star
• They will be clad in white garments
• Their names will not be blotted out of the book of life but rather confessed before Father and holy angels
•They will become a pillar in the temple and the name of God and Christ’s own new name will be written on them
The Christians believed that they would be rewarded if they died for Christ and during the persecutions they needed the promise of a reward to keep them strong enough to make it through their suffering. If one was subjected to brutality and expected to die for their faith, having a reward in the end would most likely help to make the experience worthwhile for them. In this sense, Cosmic War was a way for the Christians to persevere and remain true to themselves and their beliefs during the persecutions.
However, the Book of Revelation is not the only book in the Bible in which the call to conquer is present. In the First Letter of Peter, he mentions that Christians will have to suffer and they should not lose hope in God.
But if when you do right and suffer for it you take it patiently, you have God's approval. For to this you have been called, because Christ also suffered for you, leaving you an example, that you should follow in his steps (Peter 2:20-21).
Since therefore Christ suffered in the flesh, arm yourselves with the same though, for whoever has suffered in the flesh has ceased from sin, so as to live for the rest of the time in the flesh no longer by human passions but by the will of God (Peter 4:1-2).
Beloved, do not be surprised at the fiery ordeal which comes upon you to prove you, as though something strange were happening to you. But rejoice in so far as you share Christ's sufferings, that you may also rejoice and be glad when his glory is revealed. If you are reproached for the name of Christ, you are blessed, because the spirit of glory and of God rests upon you. But let none of you suffer as a murderer, or a thief, or a wrongdoer, or a mischief-maker; yet if one suffers as a Christian, let him not be ashamed, but under that name let him glorify God (Peter 4:12-16).
Like the Book of Revelations, the First Letter of Peter gives suffering Christians a calling and hope for a better life. These books in the Bible have obviously inspired Christians to put on the armor of God and fight in his name. A few examples of famous Christian martyrs throughout history include the martyrs of Vienne and Lyons, Polycarp as well as Marian and James. In these martyr narratives, the idea of apocalypticism is evident due to the key role that Satan plays as the adversary of the martyrs.
In the narrative of the martyrs of Vienne and Lyons, it is mentioned that Satan, has targeted the martyrs and has begun to train his own to fight against them. In Paul Middleton's Martyrdom: A Guide for the Perplexed, he argues that this martyr narrative has "an apocalyptic opening (1.3-6), where the scene is set with Satan about to manifest his final appearance. The combatants are God's servants armed with God's grace, prepared to charge into battle against the slaves of Satan" (Middleton, 63). In this narrative, the Christian woman, Blandina was filled with so much strength through God that she withstood torture for a whole day without being killed.
In the martyrdom of Polycarp, Polycarp was arrested for being a Christian and sentenced to be burned alive. However, after Polycarp prayed to God, the flames did not harm him and he was stabbed instead. "The jealous and envious Evil One, who is the adversary of the race of the just, realizing the greatness of his testimony, his unblemished career from the beginning, and seeing him now crowned with the garland of immortality and the winner of an incontestable prize, prevented us even from taking up the poor body, though so many were eager to do so and to have a share in his holy flesh" (17).
The Martyrdom of Saints Marian and James, the Devil is mentioned frequently as the enemy. "...because of the blind madness of the pagans and the action of military officials, the onslaughts of persecution surged like the waves of this world, and the fury of the ravening Devil gaped with hungry jaws to weaken the faith of the just" (2). The martyrs Marian and James were described as possessing the signs that the "divine choice" had fallen on them and that they knew they had to die for Christ. In this martyr narrative, the Romans are also explicitly described as the soldiers of Satan, "Then they were assailed by the garrison soldiery with many cruel tortures, soldiers who are murderers of the just and the good, assisted in their viciousness by the centurion and the magistrates of Cirta, priests indeed of the Devil" (5).
II. Cosmic War and
Perpetua's Call to Conquer
Another good example of a Christian martyr willing to give the ultimate sacrifice for her beliefs was Vibia Perpetua, a well-born woman from Carthage, North Africa. In 203 CE, Perpetua was arrested along with a few comrades including her slave Felicitas, on charges of being a Christian. While Perpetua was in prison, she decided to record her experiences in her diary. Within this diary, however, were four instances of Perpetua receiving visions from God. In these visions she fantasizes herself in such situations as ascending a ladder to heaven, reminiscent of Jacob’s ladder, stepping on the head of a dragon, as well as turning into a man and fighting an Egyptian. After closely examining these visions, one may gather that they are evidence that Perpetua personally believed she had a higher calling. This higher calling may have stemmed from the expectation that the end was near, which according to Fannie J. LeMoine, can result in actively participating in the world as opposed to retreating from it (LeMoine, 201). Perpetua's visions embody this idea, since they contain prominent apocalyptic imagery.
Perpetua's first vision:
I saw a ladder of tremendous height made of bronze, reaching all the way to the heavens, but it was so narrow that only one person could climb up at a time. To the sides of the ladder were attached all sorts of metal weapons: there were swords, spears, hooks, daggers, and spikes; so that if anyone tried to climb up carelessly or without paying attention, he would be mangled and his flesh would adhere to the weapons.
At the foot of the ladder lay a dragon of enormous size, and it would attack those who tried to climb up and try to terrify them from doing so. And Saturus was the first to go up, he who was later to give himself up of his own accord. He had been the builder of our strength, although he was not present when we were arrested. And he arrived at the top of the staircase and he looked back and said to me: 'Perpetua, I am waiting for you. But take care; do not let the dragon bite you.'
'He will not harm me,' I said, 'in the name of Christ Jesus.'
Slowly, as though he were afraid of me, the dragon stuck his head out from underneath the ladder. Then, using it as my first step, I trod on his head and went up.
Then I saw an immense garden, and in it a gray-haired man sat in shepherd's garb; tall he was, and milking sheep. And standing around him were many thousands of people clad in white garments. He raised his head, looked at me, and said: 'I am glad you have come, my child.'
He called me over to him and gave me, as it were, a mouthful of the milk he was drawing; and I took it into my cupped hands and consumed it. And all those who stood around said: 'Amen!' At the sound of this word I came to, with the taste of something sweet still in my mouth. I at once told this to my brother, and we realized that we would have to suffer, and that from now on we would no longer have any hope in this life.
The apocalyptic imagery present in this vision includes the ladder which is similar to Jacob's ladder. The ladder represents the painful journey in which the martyrs have to face in order to gain glory. The fact that the ladder is surrounded by dangerous weaponry also symbolizes that the journey will not be easy and that the martyrs will have to suffer. If one has read passages in the bible, it might be apparent that the dragon in the first vision is a personification of Satan. In Revelations, John describes the great war in heaven in which Michael and his angels fought against Satan, "And the great dragon was thrown down, that ancient serpent, who is called the Devil and Satan, the deceiver of the whole world-he was thrown down to the earth, and his angels were thrown down with him" (Revelations, 12:9). The fact that Perpetua stood on the head of the dragon is similar to the moment when Michael defeats Satan and then steps on his head. And finally at the end of the vision the garden that Perpetua sees is reminiscent of the Garden of Eden, symbolizing the reward of Paradise for martyrdom.
The last vision:
The day before we were to fight with the beasts I saw the following vision. Pomponius the deacon came to the prison gates and began to knock violently. I went out and opened the gate for him. He was dressed in an unbelted white tunic, wearing elaborate sandals. And he said to me: 'Perpetua, come; we are waiting for you.'
Then he took my hand and we began to walk through rough and broken country. At last we came to the amphitheatre out of breath, and he led me into the centre of the arena.
Then he told me: 'Do not be afraid. I am here, struggling with you.' Then he left.
I looked at the enormous crowd who watched in astonishment. I was surprised that no beasts were let loose on me; for I knew that I was condemned to die by the beasts. Then out came an Egyptian against me, of vicious appearance, together with his seconds, to fight with me. There also came up to me some handsome young men to be my seconds and assistants.
My clothes were stripped off, and suddenly I was a man. My seconds began to rub me down with oil (as they are wont to do before a contest). Then I saw the Egyptian on the other side rolling in the dust. Next there came forth a man of marvelous stature, such that he rose above the top of the amphitheatre. He was clad in a beltless purple tunic with two stripes (one on either side) running down the middle of his chest. He wore sandals that were wondrously made of gold and silver, and he carried a wand like an athletic trainer and a green branch on which there were golden apples.
And he asked for silence and said: 'If this Egyptian defeats her he will slay her with the sword. But if she defeats him, she will receive this branch.' Then he withdrew.
We drew close to one another and began to let our fists fly. My opponent tried to get hold of my feet, but I kept striking him in the face with the heels of my feet. Then I was raised up into the air and I began to pummel him without as it were touching the ground. Then when I noticed there was a lull, I put my two hands together linking the fingers of one hand with those of the other and thus I got hold of his head. He fell flat on his face and I stepped on his head.
The crowd began to shout and my assistants started to sing psalms. Then I walked up to the trainer and took the branch. He kissed me and said to me: 'Peace be with you, my daughter!' I began to walk in triumph towards the Gate of Life. Then I awoke. I realized that it was not with wild animals that I would fight but with the Devil, but I knew that I would win the victory. So much for what I did up until the eve of the contest. About what happened at the contest itself, let him write of it who will.
As opposed to the first vision, it might not be as easily discernible that the Egyptian in the second vision represents Satan as well. But if one has read the Exodus, the Egyptians were the oppressors of the Jew, so it is logical that Satan would be personified in this form. After experiencing these visions, Perpetua comes to the conclusion that her real fight is with Satan, not the beasts in the arena. This means that Perpetua has received the call to conquer, aka the call to suffer and die for Christ in order to defeat the forces of Evil.
Another good example of a Christian martyr willing to give the ultimate sacrifice for her beliefs was Vibia Perpetua, a well-born woman from Carthage, North Africa. In 203 CE, Perpetua was arrested along with a few comrades including her slave Felicitas, on charges of being a Christian. While Perpetua was in prison, she decided to record her experiences in her diary. Within this diary, however, were four instances of Perpetua receiving visions from God. In these visions she fantasizes herself in such situations as ascending a ladder to heaven, reminiscent of Jacob’s ladder, stepping on the head of a dragon, as well as turning into a man and fighting an Egyptian. After closely examining these visions, one may gather that they are evidence that Perpetua personally believed she had a higher calling. This higher calling may have stemmed from the expectation that the end was near, which according to Fannie J. LeMoine, can result in actively participating in the world as opposed to retreating from it (LeMoine, 201). Perpetua's visions embody this idea, since they contain prominent apocalyptic imagery.
Perpetua's first vision:
I saw a ladder of tremendous height made of bronze, reaching all the way to the heavens, but it was so narrow that only one person could climb up at a time. To the sides of the ladder were attached all sorts of metal weapons: there were swords, spears, hooks, daggers, and spikes; so that if anyone tried to climb up carelessly or without paying attention, he would be mangled and his flesh would adhere to the weapons.
At the foot of the ladder lay a dragon of enormous size, and it would attack those who tried to climb up and try to terrify them from doing so. And Saturus was the first to go up, he who was later to give himself up of his own accord. He had been the builder of our strength, although he was not present when we were arrested. And he arrived at the top of the staircase and he looked back and said to me: 'Perpetua, I am waiting for you. But take care; do not let the dragon bite you.'
'He will not harm me,' I said, 'in the name of Christ Jesus.'
Slowly, as though he were afraid of me, the dragon stuck his head out from underneath the ladder. Then, using it as my first step, I trod on his head and went up.
Then I saw an immense garden, and in it a gray-haired man sat in shepherd's garb; tall he was, and milking sheep. And standing around him were many thousands of people clad in white garments. He raised his head, looked at me, and said: 'I am glad you have come, my child.'
He called me over to him and gave me, as it were, a mouthful of the milk he was drawing; and I took it into my cupped hands and consumed it. And all those who stood around said: 'Amen!' At the sound of this word I came to, with the taste of something sweet still in my mouth. I at once told this to my brother, and we realized that we would have to suffer, and that from now on we would no longer have any hope in this life.
The apocalyptic imagery present in this vision includes the ladder which is similar to Jacob's ladder. The ladder represents the painful journey in which the martyrs have to face in order to gain glory. The fact that the ladder is surrounded by dangerous weaponry also symbolizes that the journey will not be easy and that the martyrs will have to suffer. If one has read passages in the bible, it might be apparent that the dragon in the first vision is a personification of Satan. In Revelations, John describes the great war in heaven in which Michael and his angels fought against Satan, "And the great dragon was thrown down, that ancient serpent, who is called the Devil and Satan, the deceiver of the whole world-he was thrown down to the earth, and his angels were thrown down with him" (Revelations, 12:9). The fact that Perpetua stood on the head of the dragon is similar to the moment when Michael defeats Satan and then steps on his head. And finally at the end of the vision the garden that Perpetua sees is reminiscent of the Garden of Eden, symbolizing the reward of Paradise for martyrdom.
The last vision:
The day before we were to fight with the beasts I saw the following vision. Pomponius the deacon came to the prison gates and began to knock violently. I went out and opened the gate for him. He was dressed in an unbelted white tunic, wearing elaborate sandals. And he said to me: 'Perpetua, come; we are waiting for you.'
Then he took my hand and we began to walk through rough and broken country. At last we came to the amphitheatre out of breath, and he led me into the centre of the arena.
Then he told me: 'Do not be afraid. I am here, struggling with you.' Then he left.
I looked at the enormous crowd who watched in astonishment. I was surprised that no beasts were let loose on me; for I knew that I was condemned to die by the beasts. Then out came an Egyptian against me, of vicious appearance, together with his seconds, to fight with me. There also came up to me some handsome young men to be my seconds and assistants.
My clothes were stripped off, and suddenly I was a man. My seconds began to rub me down with oil (as they are wont to do before a contest). Then I saw the Egyptian on the other side rolling in the dust. Next there came forth a man of marvelous stature, such that he rose above the top of the amphitheatre. He was clad in a beltless purple tunic with two stripes (one on either side) running down the middle of his chest. He wore sandals that were wondrously made of gold and silver, and he carried a wand like an athletic trainer and a green branch on which there were golden apples.
And he asked for silence and said: 'If this Egyptian defeats her he will slay her with the sword. But if she defeats him, she will receive this branch.' Then he withdrew.
We drew close to one another and began to let our fists fly. My opponent tried to get hold of my feet, but I kept striking him in the face with the heels of my feet. Then I was raised up into the air and I began to pummel him without as it were touching the ground. Then when I noticed there was a lull, I put my two hands together linking the fingers of one hand with those of the other and thus I got hold of his head. He fell flat on his face and I stepped on his head.
The crowd began to shout and my assistants started to sing psalms. Then I walked up to the trainer and took the branch. He kissed me and said to me: 'Peace be with you, my daughter!' I began to walk in triumph towards the Gate of Life. Then I awoke. I realized that it was not with wild animals that I would fight but with the Devil, but I knew that I would win the victory. So much for what I did up until the eve of the contest. About what happened at the contest itself, let him write of it who will.
As opposed to the first vision, it might not be as easily discernible that the Egyptian in the second vision represents Satan as well. But if one has read the Exodus, the Egyptians were the oppressors of the Jew, so it is logical that Satan would be personified in this form. After experiencing these visions, Perpetua comes to the conclusion that her real fight is with Satan, not the beasts in the arena. This means that Perpetua has received the call to conquer, aka the call to suffer and die for Christ in order to defeat the forces of Evil.
III. Cosmic War and Gender
Receiving the call to conquer in itself was a big deal to most Christians throughout history. However, there are not a lot of occurrences in which a martyr, especially a woman, promotes herself as a warrior of God in the same manner as Perpetua. In her visions, Perpetua creates a powerful persona in which she physically battles and defeats Satan, not just once but twice. The content of her visions can be described as heavily masculine, even if the person experiencing them was male. It is not uncommon, however for someone in an oppressed role to fantasize about becoming someone more powerful than their station in life. In Perpetua’s time, women were basically regarded as the property of their fathers or husbands and had no social or political power. Living in the current age, it is hard to imagine what it would have been like to not have control over one’s life. In her day, it must have been difficult for women like Perpetua to feel like they could make a difference in their lives. According to William H.C. Frend, author of Blandina and Perpetua: Two Early Christian Heroines, “Christianity provided scope for the human need of achievement and daring for a cause. In the equality practiced by the Christians many women found their chance at self-fulfillment (Frend, 175). However, Sara Parvis, author of Perpetua, believed that Perpetua was not just motivated by a desire for power when she chose to be a Christian. Parvis stated that, "Perpetua's own theology will, I believe, serve as the best answer to the criticisms implied by these observations, that she is really choosing martyrdom for some motive other than her commitment to Christianity" (Parvis, 369).
Perpetua got her chance for self-fulfillment when she was arrested on charges of being a Christian. She was a part of a group of Catechumens, people preparing for baptism and the initiation into Christianity over a period of two to three years. When she was arrested, Perpetua was only twenty two years old, married and a mother. During her stay in prison, she was eventually transformed from mother, daughter and wife to a warrior of God; a position fit for a leader. But becoming a Christian and being arrested were just the beginning for Perpetua, who rose to her full potential after emasculating the men around her, demonstrating her importance to God and proving her own masculinity. Throughout Perpetua’s passion, she competes in a contest for masculinity with not only the men around her, but Satan himself.
Perpetua begins her contest for masculinity in her first vision previously mentioned. In this vision Perpetua encounters a ladder that reaches all the way to the heavens. However this ladder is surrounded by dangerous weaponry, as if someone is trying to dissuade her from climbing it and gaining glory. If the weapons around it weren't warning enough there was also a dragon present at the base of the ladder that would attack anyone who came close to it. But Perpetua was confident that the dragon would not harm her, walked right up to the ladder and he acted as if he were afraid of her. The fact that Perpetua said that the dragon would not harm her meant that Perpetua believed Satan had no influence on her and that she would be successful in her martyrdom. The moment when Perpetua stepped on the dragon's head and used it as the first step up the ladder, signified her defeat and emasculation of Satan.
In Perpetua's last vision, she is taken to the arena by Pomponius to fight the other personification of Satan, the Egyptian. In this vision, Perpetua goes the extra step and becomes ultimately masculine by being transformed into a man. She is treated like an athlete, rubbed down with oil by her attendants, which is customary before a contest and is given the order to fight. During the battle, Perpetua kicks the Egyptian in the face and is then raised into the air above him in a position of power and continued her assault. She put him in a headlock, knocked him to the ground and stepped on his head, like she stepped on the dragon's head in the first vision, signaling his defeat once more.
The relationship that Perpetua has with her father is another prime example of Perpetua's emasculation of men. In each and every encounter with her father, Perpetua appeared to be siphoning his masculinity and leaving him feminized. When Perpetua was first arrested, her father approached her and tried to persuade her to renounce her faith so that she could be set free:
While we were still under arrest (she said) my father out of love for me was trying to persuade me and shake my resolution. 'Father,' said I, 'do you see this vase here, for example, or waterpot or whatever?'
'Yes, I do', said he.
And I told him: 'Could it be called by any other name than what it is?'
And he said: 'No.'
'Well, so too I cannot be called anything other than what I am, a Christian.'
At this my father was so angered by the word 'Christian' that he moved towards me as though he would pluck my eyes out. But he left it at that and departed, vanquished along with his diabolical arguments.
According to Stephanie Cobb, author of Dying to Be Men, "To be persuaded can be a mark of weakness, an indication of irrationality, an exhibition of femininity, although the authors of the martyrologies can also employ the language of persuasion to illustrate Christian masculinity" (Cobb, 73). In this passage, the fact that Perpetua's father could not persuade her to give up her faith shows that she was the masculine one. Since Perpetua's father tried to persuade and failed, made him more feminized. However his failure at persuasion was not the only reason he was feminized. In this passage, Perpetua's father also loses control of his emotions and is taken over by his anger, demonstrated by his actions when he moved towards her as if he was going to pluck out her eyes. In Dying to Be Men, Cobb states that self-control was a central component of masculinity according to the Roman world, and "control over one's emotions is fundamental to being a man" (Cobb, 64). Perpetua's father lost his composure and became angry, otherwise known as a "feminine" emotion, while Perpetua remained calm and in control of herself and therefore again more masculine.
Another example regarding the contest for masculinity between Perpetua and her father occurred when Perpetua's father heard that the Christian prisoners were going to be given a hearing:
A few days later there was a rumor that we were going to be given a hearing. My father also arrived from the city, worn with worry, and he came to see me with the idea of persuading me.
'Daughter,' he said, 'have pity on my grey head--have pity on me your father, if I deserve to be called your father, if I have favored you above all your brothers, if I have raised you to reach this prime of your life. Do not abandon me to be the reproach of men. Think of your brothers, think of your mother and your aunt, think of your child, who will not be able to live once you are gone. Give up your pride! You will destroy all of us! None of us will ever be able to speak freely again if anything happens to you.'
This was the way my father spoke out of love for me, kissing my hands and throwing himself down before me. With tears in his eyes he no longer addressed me as his daughter but as a woman. I was sorry for my father's sake, because he alone of all my kin would be unhappy to see me suffer.
I tried to comfort him saying: 'It will all happen in the prisoner's dock as God wills; for you may be sure that we are not left to ourselves but are all in his power.'
And he left me in great sorrow.
Here, Perpetua's father once again tries to persuade her by appealing to her nurturing feminine nature. But he fails miserably while she remains strong and unmoving. Her father begins to run out of patience with her and becomes more desperate in his determination to persuade her to renounce her Christianity. In this next passage, he tries another tactic by becoming forceful with her and guilt tripping her into living for her son:
One day while we were eating breakfast we were suddenly hurried off for a hearing. We arrived at the forum, and straight away the story went about the neighbourhood near the forum and a huge crowd gathered. We walked up to the prisoner's dock. All the others when questioned admitted their guilt. Then, when it came my turn, my father appeared with my son, dragged me from the step, and said: 'Perform the sacrifice--have pity on your baby!'
Hilarianus the governor, who had received his judicial powers as the successor of the late proconsul Minucius Timinianus, said to me: 'Have pity on your father's grey head; have pity on your infant son. Offer the sacrifice for the welfare of the emperors.'
'I will not', I retorted.
'Are you a Christian?' said Hilarianus.
And I said: 'Yes, I am.'
When my father persisted in trying to dissuade me, Hilarianus ordered him to be thrown to the ground and beaten with a rod. I felt sorry for father, just as if I myself had been beaten. I felt sorry for his pathetic old age.
In this instance, Perpetua expresses sorrow for her father as he is being beaten, showing that she is not without compassion, but she is still not persuaded by him. Perpetua remains strong even through her father's final pleas:
Now the day of the contest was approaching, and my father came to see me overwhelmed with sorrow. He started tearing the hairs from his beard and threw them on the ground; he then threw himself on the ground and began to curse his old age and to say such words as would move all creation. I felt sorry for his unhappy old age.
This last passage is evidence of Perpetua's father's failure in this contest. Here he fails on many counts concerning masculinity, by expressing sorrow, tearing at his beard, and throwing himself on the ground. In the end he has not persuaded Perpetua and has ultimately lost control of his emotions. Even going so far as to tear out the very thing that signifies he is a man in the Roman world, his beard.
Perpetua does not only compete with Satan and her father for masculinity, she competes with the Roman authority as well. Throughout her passion narrative, she described situations in which she has stood up for the well-being of her companions and the Romans bent to her will. Such an instance took place when Perpetua and the other martyrs were in prison. The military officer started withholding food from them but, Perpetua persuaded him to treat them better:
The military tribune had treated them with extraordinary severity because on the information of certain very foolish people he became afraid that they would be spirited out of the prison by magical spells.
Perpetua spoke to him directly. 'Why can you not even allow us to refresh ourselves properly? For we are the most distinguished of the condemned prisoners, seeing that we belong to the emperor; we are to fight on his very birthday. Would it not be to your credit if we were brought forth on the day in a healthier condition?'
The officer became disturbed and grew red. So it was that he gave the order that they were to be more humanely treated; and he allowed her brothers and other persons to visit, so that the prisoners could dine in their company. By this time the adjutant who was head of the gaol was himself a Christian.
In this passage Perpetua behaved like a man, by speaking to the officer directly and in an authoritative as well as mocking manner. She thoroughly embarrassed him, as evident by the fact that he turned red, and he gave in to her orders. She did not show fear when she marched into the arena on the day of her martyrdom, but instead held her head high and looked the spectators boldly in the eye:
The day of their victory dawned, and they marched from the prison to the amphitheatre joyfully as though they were going to heaven, with calm faces, trembling, if at all, with joy rather than fear. Perpetua went along with shining countenance and calm step, as the beloved of God, as a wife of Christ, putting down everyone's stare by her own intense gaze.
During this time, it would be customary for women like Perpetua to have hung their head when facing punishment.
They were then led up to the gates and the men were forced to put on the robes of priests of Saturn, the women the dress of the priestesses of Ceres. But the noble Perpetua strenuously resisted this to the end.
'We came to this of our own free will, that our freedom should not be violated. We agreed to pledge our lives provided that we would do no such thing. You agreed with us to do this.'
Even injustice recognized justice. The military tribune agreed. They were to be brought into the arena just as they were. Perpetua then began to sing a psalm: she was already treading on the head of the Egyptian. Revocatus, Saturninus, and Saturus began to warn the on looking mob. Then when they came within sight of Hilarianus, they suggested by their motions and gestures: 'You have condemned us, but God will condemn you' was what they were saying.
Here, the men Revocatus, Saturninus and Saturus appear to be following Perpetua's lead, not the other way around. She was the one who spoke up about the robes and she began singing the Psalm, not the men. According to LeMoine, "Perpetua assumes the 'quasi-legal' role of an advocate or intercessor before the Roman authorities, in direct violation of laws against women performing such mediating and advocacy roles" (LeMoine, 201).
By competing in and winning these various contests for masculinity, Perpetua proves she is a qualified leader. Joyce E. Salisbury came to a similar conclusion in her book, Perpetua's Passion. Salisbury stated that, "Although it is difficult to say much more about women in general as community leaders, we can say with certainty that Perpetua exerted some leadership in her congregation. She acted as a leader in prison and in the arena. Her qualifications for leadership were clearly her dreams and visions, which were believed to be prophetic" (Salisbury, 66).
IV. Conclusion
As one may see, Perpetua has seemingly dominated in the contest for masculinity. Not just because she emasculated the men around her, real and mythic, but because she rose above her expected social role and decided to take control of her life and her death. Though women in this time were not highly regarded, Perpetua was due to her courage and leadership skills. She was not only transformed from a daughter, wife and mother to a warrior of God, she became legendary and her narrative continues to be studied today. One of the eschatological rewards written of in the book of Revelation is the promise of being rewarded the crown of life and it appears as if Perpetua has received this honor, due to her immortality in the hearts and minds of those who have read her story.
Receiving the call to conquer in itself was a big deal to most Christians throughout history. However, there are not a lot of occurrences in which a martyr, especially a woman, promotes herself as a warrior of God in the same manner as Perpetua. In her visions, Perpetua creates a powerful persona in which she physically battles and defeats Satan, not just once but twice. The content of her visions can be described as heavily masculine, even if the person experiencing them was male. It is not uncommon, however for someone in an oppressed role to fantasize about becoming someone more powerful than their station in life. In Perpetua’s time, women were basically regarded as the property of their fathers or husbands and had no social or political power. Living in the current age, it is hard to imagine what it would have been like to not have control over one’s life. In her day, it must have been difficult for women like Perpetua to feel like they could make a difference in their lives. According to William H.C. Frend, author of Blandina and Perpetua: Two Early Christian Heroines, “Christianity provided scope for the human need of achievement and daring for a cause. In the equality practiced by the Christians many women found their chance at self-fulfillment (Frend, 175). However, Sara Parvis, author of Perpetua, believed that Perpetua was not just motivated by a desire for power when she chose to be a Christian. Parvis stated that, "Perpetua's own theology will, I believe, serve as the best answer to the criticisms implied by these observations, that she is really choosing martyrdom for some motive other than her commitment to Christianity" (Parvis, 369).
Perpetua got her chance for self-fulfillment when she was arrested on charges of being a Christian. She was a part of a group of Catechumens, people preparing for baptism and the initiation into Christianity over a period of two to three years. When she was arrested, Perpetua was only twenty two years old, married and a mother. During her stay in prison, she was eventually transformed from mother, daughter and wife to a warrior of God; a position fit for a leader. But becoming a Christian and being arrested were just the beginning for Perpetua, who rose to her full potential after emasculating the men around her, demonstrating her importance to God and proving her own masculinity. Throughout Perpetua’s passion, she competes in a contest for masculinity with not only the men around her, but Satan himself.
Perpetua begins her contest for masculinity in her first vision previously mentioned. In this vision Perpetua encounters a ladder that reaches all the way to the heavens. However this ladder is surrounded by dangerous weaponry, as if someone is trying to dissuade her from climbing it and gaining glory. If the weapons around it weren't warning enough there was also a dragon present at the base of the ladder that would attack anyone who came close to it. But Perpetua was confident that the dragon would not harm her, walked right up to the ladder and he acted as if he were afraid of her. The fact that Perpetua said that the dragon would not harm her meant that Perpetua believed Satan had no influence on her and that she would be successful in her martyrdom. The moment when Perpetua stepped on the dragon's head and used it as the first step up the ladder, signified her defeat and emasculation of Satan.
In Perpetua's last vision, she is taken to the arena by Pomponius to fight the other personification of Satan, the Egyptian. In this vision, Perpetua goes the extra step and becomes ultimately masculine by being transformed into a man. She is treated like an athlete, rubbed down with oil by her attendants, which is customary before a contest and is given the order to fight. During the battle, Perpetua kicks the Egyptian in the face and is then raised into the air above him in a position of power and continued her assault. She put him in a headlock, knocked him to the ground and stepped on his head, like she stepped on the dragon's head in the first vision, signaling his defeat once more.
The relationship that Perpetua has with her father is another prime example of Perpetua's emasculation of men. In each and every encounter with her father, Perpetua appeared to be siphoning his masculinity and leaving him feminized. When Perpetua was first arrested, her father approached her and tried to persuade her to renounce her faith so that she could be set free:
While we were still under arrest (she said) my father out of love for me was trying to persuade me and shake my resolution. 'Father,' said I, 'do you see this vase here, for example, or waterpot or whatever?'
'Yes, I do', said he.
And I told him: 'Could it be called by any other name than what it is?'
And he said: 'No.'
'Well, so too I cannot be called anything other than what I am, a Christian.'
At this my father was so angered by the word 'Christian' that he moved towards me as though he would pluck my eyes out. But he left it at that and departed, vanquished along with his diabolical arguments.
According to Stephanie Cobb, author of Dying to Be Men, "To be persuaded can be a mark of weakness, an indication of irrationality, an exhibition of femininity, although the authors of the martyrologies can also employ the language of persuasion to illustrate Christian masculinity" (Cobb, 73). In this passage, the fact that Perpetua's father could not persuade her to give up her faith shows that she was the masculine one. Since Perpetua's father tried to persuade and failed, made him more feminized. However his failure at persuasion was not the only reason he was feminized. In this passage, Perpetua's father also loses control of his emotions and is taken over by his anger, demonstrated by his actions when he moved towards her as if he was going to pluck out her eyes. In Dying to Be Men, Cobb states that self-control was a central component of masculinity according to the Roman world, and "control over one's emotions is fundamental to being a man" (Cobb, 64). Perpetua's father lost his composure and became angry, otherwise known as a "feminine" emotion, while Perpetua remained calm and in control of herself and therefore again more masculine.
Another example regarding the contest for masculinity between Perpetua and her father occurred when Perpetua's father heard that the Christian prisoners were going to be given a hearing:
A few days later there was a rumor that we were going to be given a hearing. My father also arrived from the city, worn with worry, and he came to see me with the idea of persuading me.
'Daughter,' he said, 'have pity on my grey head--have pity on me your father, if I deserve to be called your father, if I have favored you above all your brothers, if I have raised you to reach this prime of your life. Do not abandon me to be the reproach of men. Think of your brothers, think of your mother and your aunt, think of your child, who will not be able to live once you are gone. Give up your pride! You will destroy all of us! None of us will ever be able to speak freely again if anything happens to you.'
This was the way my father spoke out of love for me, kissing my hands and throwing himself down before me. With tears in his eyes he no longer addressed me as his daughter but as a woman. I was sorry for my father's sake, because he alone of all my kin would be unhappy to see me suffer.
I tried to comfort him saying: 'It will all happen in the prisoner's dock as God wills; for you may be sure that we are not left to ourselves but are all in his power.'
And he left me in great sorrow.
Here, Perpetua's father once again tries to persuade her by appealing to her nurturing feminine nature. But he fails miserably while she remains strong and unmoving. Her father begins to run out of patience with her and becomes more desperate in his determination to persuade her to renounce her Christianity. In this next passage, he tries another tactic by becoming forceful with her and guilt tripping her into living for her son:
One day while we were eating breakfast we were suddenly hurried off for a hearing. We arrived at the forum, and straight away the story went about the neighbourhood near the forum and a huge crowd gathered. We walked up to the prisoner's dock. All the others when questioned admitted their guilt. Then, when it came my turn, my father appeared with my son, dragged me from the step, and said: 'Perform the sacrifice--have pity on your baby!'
Hilarianus the governor, who had received his judicial powers as the successor of the late proconsul Minucius Timinianus, said to me: 'Have pity on your father's grey head; have pity on your infant son. Offer the sacrifice for the welfare of the emperors.'
'I will not', I retorted.
'Are you a Christian?' said Hilarianus.
And I said: 'Yes, I am.'
When my father persisted in trying to dissuade me, Hilarianus ordered him to be thrown to the ground and beaten with a rod. I felt sorry for father, just as if I myself had been beaten. I felt sorry for his pathetic old age.
In this instance, Perpetua expresses sorrow for her father as he is being beaten, showing that she is not without compassion, but she is still not persuaded by him. Perpetua remains strong even through her father's final pleas:
Now the day of the contest was approaching, and my father came to see me overwhelmed with sorrow. He started tearing the hairs from his beard and threw them on the ground; he then threw himself on the ground and began to curse his old age and to say such words as would move all creation. I felt sorry for his unhappy old age.
This last passage is evidence of Perpetua's father's failure in this contest. Here he fails on many counts concerning masculinity, by expressing sorrow, tearing at his beard, and throwing himself on the ground. In the end he has not persuaded Perpetua and has ultimately lost control of his emotions. Even going so far as to tear out the very thing that signifies he is a man in the Roman world, his beard.
Perpetua does not only compete with Satan and her father for masculinity, she competes with the Roman authority as well. Throughout her passion narrative, she described situations in which she has stood up for the well-being of her companions and the Romans bent to her will. Such an instance took place when Perpetua and the other martyrs were in prison. The military officer started withholding food from them but, Perpetua persuaded him to treat them better:
The military tribune had treated them with extraordinary severity because on the information of certain very foolish people he became afraid that they would be spirited out of the prison by magical spells.
Perpetua spoke to him directly. 'Why can you not even allow us to refresh ourselves properly? For we are the most distinguished of the condemned prisoners, seeing that we belong to the emperor; we are to fight on his very birthday. Would it not be to your credit if we were brought forth on the day in a healthier condition?'
The officer became disturbed and grew red. So it was that he gave the order that they were to be more humanely treated; and he allowed her brothers and other persons to visit, so that the prisoners could dine in their company. By this time the adjutant who was head of the gaol was himself a Christian.
In this passage Perpetua behaved like a man, by speaking to the officer directly and in an authoritative as well as mocking manner. She thoroughly embarrassed him, as evident by the fact that he turned red, and he gave in to her orders. She did not show fear when she marched into the arena on the day of her martyrdom, but instead held her head high and looked the spectators boldly in the eye:
The day of their victory dawned, and they marched from the prison to the amphitheatre joyfully as though they were going to heaven, with calm faces, trembling, if at all, with joy rather than fear. Perpetua went along with shining countenance and calm step, as the beloved of God, as a wife of Christ, putting down everyone's stare by her own intense gaze.
During this time, it would be customary for women like Perpetua to have hung their head when facing punishment.
They were then led up to the gates and the men were forced to put on the robes of priests of Saturn, the women the dress of the priestesses of Ceres. But the noble Perpetua strenuously resisted this to the end.
'We came to this of our own free will, that our freedom should not be violated. We agreed to pledge our lives provided that we would do no such thing. You agreed with us to do this.'
Even injustice recognized justice. The military tribune agreed. They were to be brought into the arena just as they were. Perpetua then began to sing a psalm: she was already treading on the head of the Egyptian. Revocatus, Saturninus, and Saturus began to warn the on looking mob. Then when they came within sight of Hilarianus, they suggested by their motions and gestures: 'You have condemned us, but God will condemn you' was what they were saying.
Here, the men Revocatus, Saturninus and Saturus appear to be following Perpetua's lead, not the other way around. She was the one who spoke up about the robes and she began singing the Psalm, not the men. According to LeMoine, "Perpetua assumes the 'quasi-legal' role of an advocate or intercessor before the Roman authorities, in direct violation of laws against women performing such mediating and advocacy roles" (LeMoine, 201).
By competing in and winning these various contests for masculinity, Perpetua proves she is a qualified leader. Joyce E. Salisbury came to a similar conclusion in her book, Perpetua's Passion. Salisbury stated that, "Although it is difficult to say much more about women in general as community leaders, we can say with certainty that Perpetua exerted some leadership in her congregation. She acted as a leader in prison and in the arena. Her qualifications for leadership were clearly her dreams and visions, which were believed to be prophetic" (Salisbury, 66).
IV. Conclusion
As one may see, Perpetua has seemingly dominated in the contest for masculinity. Not just because she emasculated the men around her, real and mythic, but because she rose above her expected social role and decided to take control of her life and her death. Though women in this time were not highly regarded, Perpetua was due to her courage and leadership skills. She was not only transformed from a daughter, wife and mother to a warrior of God, she became legendary and her narrative continues to be studied today. One of the eschatological rewards written of in the book of Revelation is the promise of being rewarded the crown of life and it appears as if Perpetua has received this honor, due to her immortality in the hearts and minds of those who have read her story.
Bibliography
Bal, Mieke. "Perpetual Contest." In Perpetua's Passions, edited by Jan N. Bremmer and Marco Formisano, 134-149. New York: Oxford University Press, 2012.
In "Perpetual Contest", Mieke Bal discusses how the Passion of Perpetua revolves around the idea of the contest for masculinity. She analyzes her argument using ideas from narratology, psychoanalysis as well as the deconstructionist theory. Bal also discusses the double introduction of the narrative of Perpetua, and how it is framed by contests on both ends of the story. This means that in the beginning Perpetua is in a contest that concerns time and in the end she is in a contest with beasts. Bal then delves into the framing contests and the contested status of the narrative as well as the genre. Bal also does a reading of the text through the lenses of realism and paternity, the transformation away from Femininity, Maleness and Pleasure, as well as sexual differences.
Cobb, Stephanie L. "Be a Man: Narrative Tools of Masculinization in Early Christian Martyr Acts." In Dying to Be Men. New York: Columbia University Press, 2008.
In this chapter of her book, Cobb describes the foundations behind the idea of masculinity in the Ancient Greco-Roman culture. These masculine ideals included the mastery of the passions, volition, justice, persuasion, as well as virtue and age. Cobb goes into detail about each form of masculinity and explains their importance. She also includes opinions regarding masculinity from Seneca, Plutarch, and other philosophers and authors. After describing what masculinity means to the men of the ancient Greco-Roman world, Cobb applies this idea of masculinity to martyrs such as Perpetua, Polycarp, Blandina, as well as a few others. But Cobb does not just talk about the masculinity of the martyrs; she also explains how the martyrs feminize authoritarian figures like Marcus Aurelius, who lost his self-control while dealing with the martyrs.
Frend, William H.C. "Blandina and Perpetua: Two Early Christian Heroines.” In Studies in Early Christianity: Women in Early Christianity, edited by Everett Ferguson, David M. Scholer and Paul Corby Finney. 351-352. New York: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1993.
In Blandina and Perpetua: Two Early Christian Heroines, Frend discusses Perpetua’s Christian background as well as the background of her household. Frend mentions that Perpetua showed the qualifications of a good leader during her time in prison and the arena. He also discusses eschatological themes present in the passion of Perpetua and how she believes she is in a personal combat with the Devil. He goes on to mention how this idea is present in other narratives such as Blandina as well as the martyrs of Vienne and Lyons. Frend states that the apocalypticism behind narratives like Perpetua’s is derived from a familiarity with books such as Revelation, the apocalypse of Peter, as well as the book of Enoch. Most importantly, however, Frend argues that Christianity provided an outlet for women who needed a chance at self-fulfillment, since Christianity was a more equality practiced religion than that of the pagans.
Jensen, Anne. "Women in Martyrdom." In God's Self-Confident Daughters: Early Christianity and the Liberation of Women, Translated by O. C. Dean Jr., 93-111. Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 1992.
In her chapter on "Women in Martyrdom", Jensen took a theological approach to analyzing Perpetua's visions. She discussed the interaction of the images in the visions, the rites of initiation in dreams and reality, the battle with Satan, the transformation into a man, as well as the feminine identification figures. Her discussion on the battle with Satan, Jensen mentioned that Perpetua's willingness to die is a vision of a fellowship in which masters, and slaves, men and women are brothers and sisters with equal rights. She also discussed that the powers of evil that must be fought include all "patriarchal" mechanisms of suppression, but "father", "state", and "society" are not actually incarnations of the Devil, but instruments used by him to block the victory of Christ.
LeMoine, Fannie J. "Apocalyptic Experience and the Conversion of Women in Early Christianity." In Fearful Hope: Approaching the New Millennium, edited by Christopher Kleinhenz and Fannie J. LeMoine, 201-206. Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1999.
In this Chapter, LeMoine starts off with a discussion around the idea that Perpetua and other Christian martyrs assumed powerful roles as mediators in their Christian communities. This transformation of character and social roles in the second and third centuries occurred because of the apocalyptic idea that time is running out and the world is about to end. LeMoine discusses how Perpetua transformed from her expected roles as daughter, wife and mother to a skillful and effective intercessor. In this chapter, the goal was to introduce the Passion of Saints Perpetua and Felicity, how the apocalypse reinforced the martyrs authority, Perpetua’s role as intercessor before the Roman authorities in violation of laws against women performing these roles, and finally to explain how the expectation of the end of the world can result in the active participation in it instead of a passive retreat from it.
Middleton, Paul. Martyrdom: A Guide for the Perplexed. New York: T&T Clark International, 2011.
In his book, Middleton discusses the history of the persecution of the early Christians and how this eventually gave way to ideas of apocalypticism and cosmic war. He has a chapter on the cosmic spectacle in which he describes how the Christian persecutions have an apocalyptic dimension. When the Christians are forced to compete in gladiatorial games they become athletes in both a literal and metaphorical sense as athletes for God. Middleton discusses such martyrdoms like that of Vienne and Lyon and how the beginning of the martyr narrative is apocalyptic. He then goes on to describe the plan of Satan to persuade the Christians to deny God and not die for him.
Middleton, Paul. Radical Martyrdom and Cosmic Conflict in Early Christianity. New York: T&T Clark, 2006.
In Radical Martyrdom, Middleton goes into depth about apocalypticism and cosmic war. He discusses the cosmic conflict including the call to conquer faced by early Christians as well as the rewards and benefits of acting on this calling. Middleton uses the book of Revelations to back up his ideas as well as martyr accounts from Perpetua and Felicitas, Blandina and others. Middleton discusses the paradox of life equals death and death equals life in Revelations and how Christians were taught to not fear death because it is not the end for them. Middleton also describes the symbol of the slaughter of the lamb, aka Christ and how martyrs embody this slaughter when they die for Christ.
Parvis, Sara. "Perpetua." In The Expository Times 120 (2009): 365-371 http://ext.sagepub.com/content/120/8/365 (accessed February 28, 2013).
In her article, Parvis discusses Perpetua in four different sub chapters including, the passion of Perpetua and Felicity, Perpetua's life and death, the theological context of the passion, and Perpetua's theology. In the section on the passion of Perpetua, Parvis explains the background behind Perpetua's passion, the time period in which it took place as well as the argument whether or not the original language was Latin or Greek. In Perpetua’s life and death, Parvis described Perpetua's life in more detail, including family life as well as her Christian community. In the theological context of the Passion, Parvis discusses the possibility that the Passion of Perpetua might be a montanist text. And finally in her last sub chapter, Perpetua's theology, Parvis describes the criticism that Perpetua has received from psychoanalysts among others. She also obviously describes Perpetua's own theology as well as her courage and leadership in the arena.
Salisbury, Joyce E. Perpetua's Passion: The Death and Memory of a Young Roman Woman. New York: Routledge, 1997.
In Perpetua's Passion, Salisbury has many chapters devoted to understanding Perpetua. Her chapter on Perpetua's time in prison is especially interesting and informative. In this chapter, Salisbury explains how the goal of Christian martyrdom is to follow the example of Christ, even if it means giving up your earthly family, role in society, and cultural continuity. These are all things that Perpetua did in order to answer the call to conquer, including going to jail. Salisbury explains the relationship in which Perpetua has with her father and goes into detail regarding Perpetua's visions that she had in prison. Salisbury also has a few other chapters in this book including an introduction on Rome, Carthage, and the Christian community in order to get a background on the circumstances of Perpetua's passion. She also discusses the context of the arena in the passion as well as the aftermath.
Waldner, Katharina. "Visions, Prophecy, and Authority in the Passio Perpetua." In Perpetua's Passions, edited by Jan N. Bremmer and Marco Formisano, 201-219. New York: Oxford University Press, 2012.
Waldner discusses the prophecy and divination in Christian literature, more specifically the visions in Perpetua's passion, and the implications that having such visions might have in regards to the Orthodoxy. She also describes the context of prophecy in martyrdom in general and the background of prophets in the gospels. Waldner later discusses the authority that Perpetua's visions had and how her visions changed from predictions of events to interpretations of these events. This means that not only is she correctly predicting coming events but that she also gives them a distinct meaning. Waldner comes to the conclusion that prophecy is in fact 'true' religion since there is 'true prophecy' present in the Old Testament and that Perpetua's visions should not be any less highly regarded.
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