Dying to be Faithful
"Where there is power, there is resistance"
-Michel Foucault-
Theories of Martyrdom
Martyrdom and violence in the name of God is a common topic in the “West.” Most people understand martyrdom ,and those that kill themselves in some context of religion, to be zealots of their faith. In an attempt to understand the ideologies, cultural response and meanings behind martyr ideology, this essay looks a theories of power as established by Michele Foucault, ancient Roman spectacle and modern day martyrdom through the lens of September 11, 2001. While 9/11 remains an unjust and horrible attack on the American people, it has also been continually sensationalized by “Western" media and has become a spectacle to global consciousness. When one critically analyzes governments use of punishment to further its own gain, how public trial and torture have become a means to illicit a social response through spectacle, one can see the power dynamics that have lead to a culture of violence and acceptance (even a desire for) martyrdom.
The author Michele Foucault is famous for writings on power relations and punishment. He questions why punishment and torture have become equal to each other, and why humans demand a certain “kind” of punishment. Foucault’s theory is that power, knowledge, punishment, and torture should all be examined through the lens of discourse. He states that it is those how hold the highest level and opportunity for discourse that are the ones in control of government and social order. To establish this dominance, people throughout history have attempted to define law, or at its very basic level, right and wrong. These ideals are set in place and then implemented within social order. However, not everyone always obeys the rules, ergo: law, punishment and torture. Foucault outlines torture and punishment as a way to make the guilty condemn themselves for all to see, to “confess” to the crimes and make a public acknowledgement of truth. This (often) public ritual is meant to establish and maintain the role of the superior and assert dominance over spectators. He states that “The public execution is to be understood not only as a judicial, but also a political ritual. It belongs, even in minor cases, to the ceremonies by which power is manifested” and that “Besides its immediate victim, the crime attacks the sovereign: it attacks him personally, since the law represents the will of the sovereign; it attacks him physically, since the force of the law is the force of the prince” (Sheridan 1977, 47). Therefore, criminal and punishment become a direct reflection of power and government. In ancient Rome, the emperor and Roman authorities were intent on keeping their power and when Christianity started to question the lifestyle already established by the elite, Christians started to become an object that challenged the discourse on power.
The author Michele Foucault is famous for writings on power relations and punishment. He questions why punishment and torture have become equal to each other, and why humans demand a certain “kind” of punishment. Foucault’s theory is that power, knowledge, punishment, and torture should all be examined through the lens of discourse. He states that it is those how hold the highest level and opportunity for discourse that are the ones in control of government and social order. To establish this dominance, people throughout history have attempted to define law, or at its very basic level, right and wrong. These ideals are set in place and then implemented within social order. However, not everyone always obeys the rules, ergo: law, punishment and torture. Foucault outlines torture and punishment as a way to make the guilty condemn themselves for all to see, to “confess” to the crimes and make a public acknowledgement of truth. This (often) public ritual is meant to establish and maintain the role of the superior and assert dominance over spectators. He states that “The public execution is to be understood not only as a judicial, but also a political ritual. It belongs, even in minor cases, to the ceremonies by which power is manifested” and that “Besides its immediate victim, the crime attacks the sovereign: it attacks him personally, since the law represents the will of the sovereign; it attacks him physically, since the force of the law is the force of the prince” (Sheridan 1977, 47). Therefore, criminal and punishment become a direct reflection of power and government. In ancient Rome, the emperor and Roman authorities were intent on keeping their power and when Christianity started to question the lifestyle already established by the elite, Christians started to become an object that challenged the discourse on power.
Spectacular Death
Roman persecutions in collective Christian memory were a time of great sorrow for the faith, when followers were persecuted, tortured and killed for what they believed to be right. Elizabeth Castelli, in her work on collective memory and religious consciousness, writes “The imperial judicial apparatus, law and punishment under the Roman empire, provide the broad backdrop for considering the situation of those Christians who were arrested, tried, and punished by imperial authorities. This apparatus and its workings were simultaneously a simple social and material fact in the experience of subject peoples and an element in the Christian imagination of martyrdom. This imperial criminal-justice system reinscribed the social hierarchies that were central to other aspects of Roman social order” (Castelli 2004, 39). To combine Castelli to Foucault, collective memory for Christianity came out of the discourse of Roman power and authority. As a means to illustrate this power, imperial Rome turned to spectacle. For the government, spectacle was a way of controlling the crowd. Punishing those that committed crimes or challenged the government was a way to warn other that might think of doing the same. Christianity posed a serious challenge to authority in its increasing dominance over citizens. Many chose not to renounce their faith, so as punishment they were tortured and killed. It wasn’t enough hold private trials for these Christians, that wouldn’t do enough to maintain order. They had to be punished in a public way, using physical discourse (through the acts of death). For Christians that believed strongly in their faith, this punishment and death became a challenge of sorts. With the collective memory of Christianity, to die at the hands of imperial Rome was to please God and gain rewards in heaven.
When Perpetua was killed, her death was seen in favor because she died as a defense to her faith. Stories of her martyrdom are filled with visions of the afterlife and having rewards in heaven. Her death became seen as part of a larger cosmic battle for Christianity, that Christians are at war with the unfaithful and their responsibility and honor to die for the name of God. As Christians were forced to defend their faith more frequently, the idea of standing up for their beliefs became more internalized. The spectacle of dying became a way for Christians to prove themselves, to challenge the roles of the oppressor.
When Perpetua was killed, her death was seen in favor because she died as a defense to her faith. Stories of her martyrdom are filled with visions of the afterlife and having rewards in heaven. Her death became seen as part of a larger cosmic battle for Christianity, that Christians are at war with the unfaithful and their responsibility and honor to die for the name of God. As Christians were forced to defend their faith more frequently, the idea of standing up for their beliefs became more internalized. The spectacle of dying became a way for Christians to prove themselves, to challenge the roles of the oppressor.
September 11, 2001
The people that committed the acts of violence on September 11, 2011 also saw themselves as challenging the oppressor. Though Roman persecution and martyred death regards Christianity, Islam also has the same ideas of spectacle. Foucault would argue that the strongest discourse that came out of 9/11 was the relationship of power that the United States dominated. Without attempting to speak to the tragedy of that historical day or the war that has sense ensued, 9/11 has become a spectacle for the world to witness, most of this coming from how violence has been sensationalized by the media and the United States government asserting its own power in the situation. Author Douglas Kellner reflects on how media has made 9/11 a drama that has unfolded as spectacle of terror, stating, “Consequently, terror spectacle is a crucial part of the deadly game of contemporary politics and the Bin Laden group had systematically used spectacle of terror to promote its agenda” (Kellner 2004, 42-3). Spectacle has wound its way into the consciousness of religious ideology. To prove one's point, it is not enough to be a believer or even to profess one’s faith with words or non-violent actions. Religion must be grandiose and forced into collective memory in order to find its way throughout history.
Annotated Bibliography
Beacham, Richard. Spectacle Entertainments of Early Imperial Rome. New Haven and London: Yale University, 1999.
Beacham’s research is intended to give the reader a background knowledge of Imperial Rome, specifically the empires rise to power. In order to understand how Beacham writes about power dynamics, it is important to consider the history of politics in ancient Rome. It is also important to consider the changing cultural dynamics as Christianity started to take root throughout the empire and the flux in traditions. The two sets of knowledge form the backdrop in which Beacham investigates martyrdom (and dying in the arena in general) as a performance. This performance was a way to facilitate social roles and to ingrain them into the social consciousness of Roman society. As Christianity grew in numbers and power, the empire became more concerned with their own power and fear political and social defiance. In the narratives of martyrdom, one can see how death in the arena became a way for Christians to establish their own sense of power outside of previously designed ideals. This upheaval led to the prevalence of martyrdom and ideologies of dying for God.
Castelli, Elizabeth. Martyrdom and Memory: Early Christian Culture Making. New York: Columbia University Press, 2004.
Castelli speaks to the theory of martyrdom and Christian ideology from ancient Rome to modern day. This work calls into question the motivations behind martyrdom and what Castelli calls collective memory. Castelli takes other ideas on “social theory” and the underlying dynamics of social ideals and forms the notion of collective memory. This idea contributing to why martyrdom has become so idealized in Christianity and other religious traditions. Castelli writes about how Christianity, under Roman rule, developed a consciousness of challenge and needing to defends one cause. Castelli looks to politics, law, and social order for how collective memory is formed. These ideas are then tied back into martyrdom theory to give evidence to why martyrdom (and dying for a cause) has become part of religious consciousness. Additionally, she encourages the reader to question where/when/how/why martyrdom (violence at it’s roots) became such an essential part of collective memory.
Cobb, Stephanie. Dying to Be Men: Gender and Language in Early Christian Martyr Texts. New York: Columbia University Press, 2008.
Cobb pulls together several theories regarding martyrdom and death in ancient Rome. Starting off with the buildup of Christian consciousness and how identity as a Christian began to form in the context of Roman rule and persecution. This idea is important for Cobb to establish because it illustrates how Christianity and it’s followers began to think of themselves and the ideologies of faith that developed. As part of this self identity, Cobb looks to gender roles within Roman society. As Christianity grew around preexisting ideas of gender, many social norms became religious norms. Cobb connects these norms to martyrdom and Christians that died for their faith. Cobb’s strongest connection is made in the analysis of male roles, how martyrdom and dying a noble death became a “male” tradition. Though not always exclusively male (women were killed as well) the process of noble death as spectacle and the act of dying itself became gendered, with “male” characteristics being placed above those considered “female.”
Edwards, Catharine. Death in Ancient Rome. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2007.
Edwards questions why those in ancient Rome were honored to die as a gladiator, why spectacle of death meant more to them than being alive. Edwards also walks the reader through the process of how one is supposed to die and the power relations that they are enabling by dying as such. In this power relation, Edwards outlines that spectators were also a part of the drama, with their own set of roles to fulfill. A main focus of this book was the meaning of death and why it became so important to die in the area, in the spectacle of honor. Edwards comes to the conclusion that in many ways, the arena became a way to deal with death itself. That dying a noble death promised a praised afterlife, which was advantageous for people caught in the political grips of Roman power.
Foucault, Michel. “The Spectacle of the Scaffold.” In Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison, trans. by Alan Sheridan, 32-69. New York: Random House, 1977.
Foucault outlines the way in which punishment has become a tool of the government to further it’s own agenda and keep power dynamics aligned to certain ideologies. The majority of Foucault’s work focuses on the establishment of incarceration and punishment a way to keep social order. Power dynamics are questioned in how governments use language and social norms to keep general population under their control, it is a means for oppressor to stay in power of the oppressed. The spectacle of torture and punishment are examined as a way to instill fear into society, which is a mechanism of control. Punishment became public as a way for governments to maintain power and show the amount of force they could enact, if someone was to go against norms. Foucault explains that punishment became part of the ceremony in which humans achieve justice and is discourse in how society believes they maintain social order.
Foucault, Michel. Power/Knowledge. Edited by Colin Gordon. New York: Pantheon Books, 1972.
In this work Foucault illustrates the way in which power, knowledge and truth are a matter of discourse. His ideas surround the notion that power is established and maintained by those that hold the most dominant discourse. Foucault states that we are made up of our experience and that it is through what we experience in life that will determine self and the way in which an individual “moves” throughout the world. He calls into question the human notion of power and the unjust way which power is developed through discourse. By some lacking enough or proper knowledge, they are cast aside by society and end up becoming the oppressed. The oppressed can only rise up through a change in discourse, a counter-culture if you will. He persuades his readers to not be blind to power or to follow ideals without question. Instead, he demands a redirection in thought so that power dynamics can be made more equal and benefit the people at large.
Kellner, Douglas. “9/11, Spectacles of Terror, and Media Manipulation.” Critical Discourse Studies 1 (2004): 41-64.
Kellner’s article calls into question why terror, in theory and practice, has become a spectacle for human kind. Making a strong connection between politics and the spectacle of terror, Kellner illustrates that in the immediate time following September 11, 2001, media (particularly the propaganda shown in America) we meant to create a spectacle. The media sensationalized good vs evil, “West” vs. “other,” and Islam vs. all other religions. Kellner outlines the discourse used by the Bush administration following the attack and the justification used to go to war. In this way, Kellner is outlining power dynamics and explaining how discourse is used to keep the American people riveted (and submissive) to their government. In the context of this discourse, Kellner also critiques the way Bush’s administration made the war about power and ways in which religion was caught up in ideology of violence and the required retribution in order for American’s to feel justified.
Kyle, Donald. Spectacles of Death in Ancient Rome. London: Routledge, 1998.
Kyle’s book investigates the different types of spectacle in ancient Rome, looking at how and why people were killed. For Kyle, understanding violence is essential if one is to understand human nature. In order to account for violence, Kyle argues that we must first understand how deeply symbolic death and killing are to human kind. In regards to Roman spectacle, Kyle outlines the groundwork for what “made” a spectator, what was gain from watching the games. How the relationship of power, spectacle, society and death were all intertwined with one another. Kyle also notes the importance of the victim, who was the person chosen to die and the situation that lead to that decision. This is important, Kyle states, because death was different for criminals and for gladiators and that within those two main categories existed a vast amount of social implications and norms. All of these aspects were part of the function of spectacle and the social and political dynamics of death. Which, in turn, have created a culture of martyrdom for spectacle.
Lincoln, Bruce. Holy Terrors: Thinking about Religion after September 11. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2006.
Lincoln’s book aims to analyze and critique how terror is regarded in global conciseness. Much of the book focuses on how religious violence has become propaganda for media, particularly in the “West” and as it relates to Islam. The book also calls into question the larger context of religion and why so many think of it and interpret doctrine as violent. In order to understand these aspects better, Lincoln looks to political history and how that has shaped social constructions. Additionally focusing on political motivations and how they have been used to shape power throughout the world. Lincoln attempts to define the nature and purpose of “religion” in general to better understand human psyche and obsession over religious violence, illustrating the ways religion has been used a mechanism for rebellion and shifts in social power. Lincoln aims to broader the discourse around religion and it’s purpose for human nature.
Moss. Candida. Ancient Christian Martyrdom: Diverse Practices, Theologies, and Traditions. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2012.
Moss outlines martyrdom ideologies and the way in which death became a part of Christian identity. Moss examines the martyred deaths of several Christians to reveal the ideologies behind these deaths and why becoming a martyr is part of collective consciousness. Moss analyzed the roles people took on when dying for their faith and how people spoke about their martyrdom afterwards. This aspect is important because it sets up the foundation for how people begin to equate Christianity and martyrdom. Ideologies that dying a martyred death makes one a true Christian. Moss looks at how martyrs were thought about within society and how Christianity under Roman rule developed within the realm of persecution. Moss wants the reader to understand that there is not one singular notion of martyrdom and to critically think about how ideologies (religious and political) have been formed.
Potter, David. “Martyrdom as Spectacle.” In Theater and Society in the Classical World, edited by Ruth Scodel, 53-88. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 1993.
Potter writes on the way spectacle, death and politics of ancient Rome were meant to play into the emotions of human nature. Sometimes simply by default, spectacle was meant illicit an emotional response from the viewer. This response (and attachment) was part of what has made spectacle such an avid aspect of modern human interaction and is an example of why Christian ideology is rife with martyr narratives. Potter also wants readers to understand the important difference in trials and executions. Both had specific sets of norms in which all players had certain “parts” that it was commonly understood they would accept and “act out” properly. Most of these norms with society were centered around politics and one’s relationship (particularly the criminal) to the Roman authorities. An execution was not the place to challenge, whether by actions or words, the role and dominance of the government. To do so would corrupt the sense of spectacle and off balance political strongholds.
Schirato, Tony, and Jennifer Webb. “The Media as Spectacle: September 11 as Soap Opera.” Journal for Cultural Research 8:4 (2004): 411-423.
This articles focuses on how spectacle was warped the public consciousness and altered the general publics idea of terrorists and the war on terror. The authors state that mass media is to blame for this ideology and that ideas of spectacle are created and upheld by mass media. They look to coverage of September 11 and the subsequent war on terror for examples of how media has over sensationalized violence. They explain spectacle theory and they ways in which it has (and continues to be) used to maintain power dynamics. They call into question who media is really for and critique those in power for taking advantage of general populations. The authors make the comparison between spectacle of violence and the idea of soap opera, stating that both coverage of violence and the way media “style” that coverage contribute to the spectacle.
Schubart, Rikke, ed. War Isn’t Hell, It’s Entertainment. Jefferson, North Carolina, and London: McFarland and Company, Inc. Publishers, 2009.
This book is a compilation of essays that critically analyze media’s response to violent acts. In particular, the essays focus on the “war on terror” in the aftermath of the September 11, 2001 attacks. This book is an attempt to reflect on the way war is used for power and sensationalized by the media, specifically in the “West.” The essays illustrate how people idealize war and violence in the way services members are honored (pointing out the gender roles in which men receive more fame and glory than women), how “Western” coverage of violence is meant to be a spectacle by appealing to the human senses, and how these issues with cultural attitudes ultimately a mechanism of continual violence. The editors have picked essays that reflect on the violent nature of war and how military culture has found it’s way into civilian lifestyle and vernacular, specifically through the use of video games and social media.
Beacham’s research is intended to give the reader a background knowledge of Imperial Rome, specifically the empires rise to power. In order to understand how Beacham writes about power dynamics, it is important to consider the history of politics in ancient Rome. It is also important to consider the changing cultural dynamics as Christianity started to take root throughout the empire and the flux in traditions. The two sets of knowledge form the backdrop in which Beacham investigates martyrdom (and dying in the arena in general) as a performance. This performance was a way to facilitate social roles and to ingrain them into the social consciousness of Roman society. As Christianity grew in numbers and power, the empire became more concerned with their own power and fear political and social defiance. In the narratives of martyrdom, one can see how death in the arena became a way for Christians to establish their own sense of power outside of previously designed ideals. This upheaval led to the prevalence of martyrdom and ideologies of dying for God.
Castelli, Elizabeth. Martyrdom and Memory: Early Christian Culture Making. New York: Columbia University Press, 2004.
Castelli speaks to the theory of martyrdom and Christian ideology from ancient Rome to modern day. This work calls into question the motivations behind martyrdom and what Castelli calls collective memory. Castelli takes other ideas on “social theory” and the underlying dynamics of social ideals and forms the notion of collective memory. This idea contributing to why martyrdom has become so idealized in Christianity and other religious traditions. Castelli writes about how Christianity, under Roman rule, developed a consciousness of challenge and needing to defends one cause. Castelli looks to politics, law, and social order for how collective memory is formed. These ideas are then tied back into martyrdom theory to give evidence to why martyrdom (and dying for a cause) has become part of religious consciousness. Additionally, she encourages the reader to question where/when/how/why martyrdom (violence at it’s roots) became such an essential part of collective memory.
Cobb, Stephanie. Dying to Be Men: Gender and Language in Early Christian Martyr Texts. New York: Columbia University Press, 2008.
Cobb pulls together several theories regarding martyrdom and death in ancient Rome. Starting off with the buildup of Christian consciousness and how identity as a Christian began to form in the context of Roman rule and persecution. This idea is important for Cobb to establish because it illustrates how Christianity and it’s followers began to think of themselves and the ideologies of faith that developed. As part of this self identity, Cobb looks to gender roles within Roman society. As Christianity grew around preexisting ideas of gender, many social norms became religious norms. Cobb connects these norms to martyrdom and Christians that died for their faith. Cobb’s strongest connection is made in the analysis of male roles, how martyrdom and dying a noble death became a “male” tradition. Though not always exclusively male (women were killed as well) the process of noble death as spectacle and the act of dying itself became gendered, with “male” characteristics being placed above those considered “female.”
Edwards, Catharine. Death in Ancient Rome. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2007.
Edwards questions why those in ancient Rome were honored to die as a gladiator, why spectacle of death meant more to them than being alive. Edwards also walks the reader through the process of how one is supposed to die and the power relations that they are enabling by dying as such. In this power relation, Edwards outlines that spectators were also a part of the drama, with their own set of roles to fulfill. A main focus of this book was the meaning of death and why it became so important to die in the area, in the spectacle of honor. Edwards comes to the conclusion that in many ways, the arena became a way to deal with death itself. That dying a noble death promised a praised afterlife, which was advantageous for people caught in the political grips of Roman power.
Foucault, Michel. “The Spectacle of the Scaffold.” In Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison, trans. by Alan Sheridan, 32-69. New York: Random House, 1977.
Foucault outlines the way in which punishment has become a tool of the government to further it’s own agenda and keep power dynamics aligned to certain ideologies. The majority of Foucault’s work focuses on the establishment of incarceration and punishment a way to keep social order. Power dynamics are questioned in how governments use language and social norms to keep general population under their control, it is a means for oppressor to stay in power of the oppressed. The spectacle of torture and punishment are examined as a way to instill fear into society, which is a mechanism of control. Punishment became public as a way for governments to maintain power and show the amount of force they could enact, if someone was to go against norms. Foucault explains that punishment became part of the ceremony in which humans achieve justice and is discourse in how society believes they maintain social order.
Foucault, Michel. Power/Knowledge. Edited by Colin Gordon. New York: Pantheon Books, 1972.
In this work Foucault illustrates the way in which power, knowledge and truth are a matter of discourse. His ideas surround the notion that power is established and maintained by those that hold the most dominant discourse. Foucault states that we are made up of our experience and that it is through what we experience in life that will determine self and the way in which an individual “moves” throughout the world. He calls into question the human notion of power and the unjust way which power is developed through discourse. By some lacking enough or proper knowledge, they are cast aside by society and end up becoming the oppressed. The oppressed can only rise up through a change in discourse, a counter-culture if you will. He persuades his readers to not be blind to power or to follow ideals without question. Instead, he demands a redirection in thought so that power dynamics can be made more equal and benefit the people at large.
Kellner, Douglas. “9/11, Spectacles of Terror, and Media Manipulation.” Critical Discourse Studies 1 (2004): 41-64.
Kellner’s article calls into question why terror, in theory and practice, has become a spectacle for human kind. Making a strong connection between politics and the spectacle of terror, Kellner illustrates that in the immediate time following September 11, 2001, media (particularly the propaganda shown in America) we meant to create a spectacle. The media sensationalized good vs evil, “West” vs. “other,” and Islam vs. all other religions. Kellner outlines the discourse used by the Bush administration following the attack and the justification used to go to war. In this way, Kellner is outlining power dynamics and explaining how discourse is used to keep the American people riveted (and submissive) to their government. In the context of this discourse, Kellner also critiques the way Bush’s administration made the war about power and ways in which religion was caught up in ideology of violence and the required retribution in order for American’s to feel justified.
Kyle, Donald. Spectacles of Death in Ancient Rome. London: Routledge, 1998.
Kyle’s book investigates the different types of spectacle in ancient Rome, looking at how and why people were killed. For Kyle, understanding violence is essential if one is to understand human nature. In order to account for violence, Kyle argues that we must first understand how deeply symbolic death and killing are to human kind. In regards to Roman spectacle, Kyle outlines the groundwork for what “made” a spectator, what was gain from watching the games. How the relationship of power, spectacle, society and death were all intertwined with one another. Kyle also notes the importance of the victim, who was the person chosen to die and the situation that lead to that decision. This is important, Kyle states, because death was different for criminals and for gladiators and that within those two main categories existed a vast amount of social implications and norms. All of these aspects were part of the function of spectacle and the social and political dynamics of death. Which, in turn, have created a culture of martyrdom for spectacle.
Lincoln, Bruce. Holy Terrors: Thinking about Religion after September 11. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2006.
Lincoln’s book aims to analyze and critique how terror is regarded in global conciseness. Much of the book focuses on how religious violence has become propaganda for media, particularly in the “West” and as it relates to Islam. The book also calls into question the larger context of religion and why so many think of it and interpret doctrine as violent. In order to understand these aspects better, Lincoln looks to political history and how that has shaped social constructions. Additionally focusing on political motivations and how they have been used to shape power throughout the world. Lincoln attempts to define the nature and purpose of “religion” in general to better understand human psyche and obsession over religious violence, illustrating the ways religion has been used a mechanism for rebellion and shifts in social power. Lincoln aims to broader the discourse around religion and it’s purpose for human nature.
Moss. Candida. Ancient Christian Martyrdom: Diverse Practices, Theologies, and Traditions. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2012.
Moss outlines martyrdom ideologies and the way in which death became a part of Christian identity. Moss examines the martyred deaths of several Christians to reveal the ideologies behind these deaths and why becoming a martyr is part of collective consciousness. Moss analyzed the roles people took on when dying for their faith and how people spoke about their martyrdom afterwards. This aspect is important because it sets up the foundation for how people begin to equate Christianity and martyrdom. Ideologies that dying a martyred death makes one a true Christian. Moss looks at how martyrs were thought about within society and how Christianity under Roman rule developed within the realm of persecution. Moss wants the reader to understand that there is not one singular notion of martyrdom and to critically think about how ideologies (religious and political) have been formed.
Potter, David. “Martyrdom as Spectacle.” In Theater and Society in the Classical World, edited by Ruth Scodel, 53-88. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 1993.
Potter writes on the way spectacle, death and politics of ancient Rome were meant to play into the emotions of human nature. Sometimes simply by default, spectacle was meant illicit an emotional response from the viewer. This response (and attachment) was part of what has made spectacle such an avid aspect of modern human interaction and is an example of why Christian ideology is rife with martyr narratives. Potter also wants readers to understand the important difference in trials and executions. Both had specific sets of norms in which all players had certain “parts” that it was commonly understood they would accept and “act out” properly. Most of these norms with society were centered around politics and one’s relationship (particularly the criminal) to the Roman authorities. An execution was not the place to challenge, whether by actions or words, the role and dominance of the government. To do so would corrupt the sense of spectacle and off balance political strongholds.
Schirato, Tony, and Jennifer Webb. “The Media as Spectacle: September 11 as Soap Opera.” Journal for Cultural Research 8:4 (2004): 411-423.
This articles focuses on how spectacle was warped the public consciousness and altered the general publics idea of terrorists and the war on terror. The authors state that mass media is to blame for this ideology and that ideas of spectacle are created and upheld by mass media. They look to coverage of September 11 and the subsequent war on terror for examples of how media has over sensationalized violence. They explain spectacle theory and they ways in which it has (and continues to be) used to maintain power dynamics. They call into question who media is really for and critique those in power for taking advantage of general populations. The authors make the comparison between spectacle of violence and the idea of soap opera, stating that both coverage of violence and the way media “style” that coverage contribute to the spectacle.
Schubart, Rikke, ed. War Isn’t Hell, It’s Entertainment. Jefferson, North Carolina, and London: McFarland and Company, Inc. Publishers, 2009.
This book is a compilation of essays that critically analyze media’s response to violent acts. In particular, the essays focus on the “war on terror” in the aftermath of the September 11, 2001 attacks. This book is an attempt to reflect on the way war is used for power and sensationalized by the media, specifically in the “West.” The essays illustrate how people idealize war and violence in the way services members are honored (pointing out the gender roles in which men receive more fame and glory than women), how “Western” coverage of violence is meant to be a spectacle by appealing to the human senses, and how these issues with cultural attitudes ultimately a mechanism of continual violence. The editors have picked essays that reflect on the violent nature of war and how military culture has found it’s way into civilian lifestyle and vernacular, specifically through the use of video games and social media.
Part I. Introduction: What is martyrdom and how do we collectively think about it? Ties to religion and the way in which religious people respond to martyrdom. This is how I would like to start my paper and use the information regarding ideology of martyrdom to transition into Roman spectacle.
- My introduction will mostly be for basic background purposes and as a way to give context to what will come next in the paper, i.e. Roman Spectacle. In order to further explain my paper and to give context to my thesis, I will use Castelli and her ideas of collective memory to explain ideology of martyrdom.
- My working thesis is that martyrdom ideology is part of collective memory and that that whether regarding Christian persecutions or 9/11, on can still see the theories behind Roman spectacle and Noble Death. That the theories from the introduction regarding Roman spectacle are still applicable to current ideology of martyrdom and death.
- Roman Spectacle: This section will primarily focus on theories of spectacle, particularly as illustrated by Greco-Roman literature. I want to address what spectacle theory is, how it’s talked about and how the idea relates to martyrdom.
- A main focus of this will be on power relations, specifically those outlined from Foucault. The book Power/Knowledge (chapters 7&8) are helpful for this because they outline the way in which spectacle is really an act of power. As we have talked about in class, spectacle and how was was supposed to accept their punishment and be put to death are extreme acts of power and all orchestrated to keep ‘balance’ even.
- I would would also like to address how these notions of power become part of collective memory (to tie the paragraphs together and support my thesis) as well as the way in which the enforced stereotypes or ways of thinking. The purpose of including this information is to make a clean transition into the next topic.
- I will use several examples to show how theory of spectacle can be seen in Christian martyr stories. I plan on connecting this to collective memory and power relations by illustrating how people were ‘supposed’ to die. Castelli also writes on spectacle, so I should be able to make this transition easily.
- I would also like to backup the portion of stereotypes and normative ways of thinking, particularly gender roles in my examples.
- I also think it’s important to address the way in which martyrdom was equated to being a Christian. We have discussed this concept in class, how it’s not enough to just be a Christian. But that one needs to be martyred to be truly worthy.
- Perpetua and Felicitas: I will use her story to illustrate how previous claims to ideology can be applied and how her death is an example of spectacle. I think Perpetua is important because she was used as an example of how people are ‘supposed’ to die and I can use her feminine roles to support the theories about martyrdom being gendered.
- In this example, I would like to draw up on a couple of sources to support theories on spectacle, including Moss’ ideas on cosmic war. I won’t spend much time on this, I just think it’s important to understand how theories contribute to cosmic war and how that has created collective memory.
- Polycarp: I will use essentially the same argument from Perpetua and Felicitas, but apply those examples to Polycarp. I think it’s important to illustrate how the theories laid out in part I can be seen in multiple examples. Additionally, the example of Polycarp is a good way to illustrate how martyrdom and Christianity become intertwined and the influence that power relations had on how collective memory of Christianity was formed.
- I will make the argument that 9/11 and the ideology behind it can be supported by spectacle theory. I think it’s important to focus on why 9/11 was in itself a spectacle.
- I plan to reinforce this idea by using the theories from part I and applying them to the terrorist acts of 9/11.
- Material from Bruce Lincoln will be really influential here, particularly his book Holy Terrors in which he writes about how Islamic Fundamentalist believed that 9/11 would gain them greater rewards in the afterlife. I would also like to make a connection back to how spectacle also contributes to how people are ‘supposed’ to die.
- Conclusion: Essentially I will repeat the theories stated in part I to reinforce my conclusion and hat the theories from the introduction regarding Roman spectacle are still applicable to current ideology of martyrdom and death (from my thesis).
- I would like to close my paper with information from Castelli regarding collective memory because I think that how martyrdom is thought about contributes to how we think of religion. Within that is also the idea of spectacle, death being made into a spectacle for religion.
- Using Foucault again would probably help me close out my paper and connect all the parts of my paper.
- I’m not completely sure how I’d like to close out my paper. Most likely, it will involve a quick recap of the previous theories and relating all the examples of spectacle and martyrdom back together.