The Social Psychology of Radical Martyrdom Culture
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By: Cassie Brandes
Intro: Though martyrdom has been present for centuries, it has only recently been the target of a great amount of scientific scrutiny as to its psychological correlates and causes. Though the bulk of research on the topic concerns“terrorism” rather than “martyrdom”, these labels refer to the same behavior, framed differentially based on the perspective. One person’s terrorist act is another’s freedom fighting. In the end, the commission of the ultimate sacrifice for one’s ideology is the subject under examination. This investigation has become important in the last several years following the conflict between western powers and several radical Islamic groups. The attacks committed during this conflict (and others such as the Israeli-Palestinian dispute) involve suicide missions in the name of religion. The study of this topic aims to understand the causes of this martyrdom behavior in terms of social science, which does not always agree with what popular perceptions of either side might assert. The general psychological theories relevant are examined, as well as factors specific to radical Islamic martyrdom. Relevant General Psychological Theories: Social learning is at the forefront of the study of the social psychology of martyrdom. What is learned through social interaction has a massive effect on how one’s life is lived, the values they hold, and the behavior they exhibit. Social networks dictate the type and quality of information to which one is exposed. This has been applied to martyrdom in the study of early Christians. In “Early Christian Martyrdom and the Psychology of Depression, Suicide, and Bodily Mutilation”, the author describes a sense of belonging and social communion among members of the early church (Bradford 1990). This would have created a sense of shared experience, with which comes shared history. The stories, values, and outlooks of the group would have been shared among the members. One of such shared beliefs was that of the afterlife. The faithful were taught and frequently rehearsed ideas and stories about heaven and the rewards of the life beyond. This is no doubt the root of the decreased fear of death found with early Christians. The decreased levels of death anxiety found with the devout were in contrast to the levels found in weak or non-believers. This explains the zeal and vigor with which the martyrs in early Christianity strode toward their impending deaths in the arena. These individuals had the highest religious conviction, and therefore were openly inviting to death, knowing that they had the faith of greater reward in their veins. A large part of this social learning is the reward for the display of conduct that is socially normative and appropriate. Behavior that is rewarded is to be repeated, as behavioral psychology would assert. Many of the compensations of martyrdom are social as well as heavenly. The status received as a martyr (or a martyr-to-be) is immensely valuable. It is socially desirable to publicly sacrifice oneself for the group, and though in the case of martyrdom, this inevitably leads to one’s demise, the social capital can be worth everything (Horgan 2008). From whom does learned behavior come? Authority figures – including parents, elders, superiors, and people of greater social capital are generally those who convey these lessons. Studies have shown that when children observe an adult having a violent interaction with a toy doll, they are much more likely to be aggressive toward it than children who were exposed to a peaceful playtime (Bandura et al. 1961). This study has been replicated many times, always with the general conclusion that modes of interaction (especially violent interaction) are socially learned, especially when presented by an authority figure. Martyr narratives present spiritual ‘superiors’to the faithful, transmitting the message of death for the faith (at times in a very violent fashion). This, coupled with the lessons taught by clergy, can be extremely influential in shaping people’s ideas about how life should be lived and how one should interact with others. Though Emile Durkheim was researching sociological principles in his famous work, Le Suicide, he made an interesting contribution to the social psychology of martyrdom. In Le Suicide, Durkheim outlines specific categories of suicide – with“altruistic suicide” being one of these categories (Robertson 2006). He describes altruistic suicide as one in which a person kills themselves for a greater cause. This individual perceives that their death will aid the group, and therefore their death is not as full of despair as other suicides may be. Their death is described as being something more similar to a release, with some suicides even rejoicing in their opportunity to assist the cause. This is highly reminiscent of martyr narratives, and describes the elation of self-sacrifice of seemingly insane individuals (e.g. Perpetua) in an identifiable way. Suicidal martyrdom is a major theme in Islamic martyrdom, and therefore Durkheim’s work had more extensive conclusions than for just the time period in which he was researching. Aside from social learning theories, there are testable elements of martyrdom and self-sacrifice. Obviously, real martyrdom cannot be recreated in a lab setting (as scientists are always so eager to do with most other psychological phenomenon). However, self-sacrifice in the face of imagined or real pain is definitely replicable. A study by Olivola et al. (2013) measured money donated to charities in which there was a perceived sacrifice or not (a charity run vs. a charity picnic). Participants donated more to the sacrifice-charity than the one without. This finding was also replicated in an experiment which gave subjects an option either to donate more to a fictitious charity while having to endure 60 seconds of pain, or to donate less being able to go without the pain. Participants still chose the pain condition more than the non-pain one (and for a fictitious charity!). Another interesting finding from this series of studies is that people are more likely to donate to causes which involve some sort of human suffering (e.g. starving people in a third-world country), rather than those that do not (e.g. to the environment). These findings showed that when people perceive greater pain and suffering associated with a cause, they are more likely to associate greater importance with that cause. Martyrdom generally has done the same thing in societies for many years – when people see other people dying for a cause, they assume that this cause must be important and must be worthy. The narratives of martyrdom circulated in collective memory underscore the importance of the religious group itself. Factors Specific to Contemporary Islamic Martyrdom These general psychological principles of martyrdom, social learning, and violence are highly applicable to contemporary Islamic martyrdom. The most highly published cases of martyrdom in the Islamic tradition are those involving suicide bombing – attacks designed to inflict maximum damage on a target, for which the executor sacrifices their own life. The etiological theories specific to Islamic martyrdom which are most relevant (being of both public and scientific sources) include those of psychopathology, rational choice, identity/group membership, and grievance/threat. The former two are opinions usually favored by the public (of the United States, primarily), while the latter two are preferred by scientists in the psychology of terrorism. All of the above will be examined. Psychopathology theory in relation to terrorism in Islamic sects assumes that there is something amiss with the psychological health of individuals partaking in terrorist acts. This is a theory that has not been substantiated by social science, yet continues to be prevalent in popular media, especially in the United States. This takes the form of calling people “crazy” or “fanatical”. This thesis has been strongly refuted by psychologists (Victoroff 2005) who assert that theory is actually contrary to the data on selection of terrorist group members. Evidence collected on membership in these types of groups shows that individuals who are mentally ill are actually less likely to be selected for these groups, as they would pose a major threat to the secrecy and execution of covert operations. This theory has yet to receive any support from empirical findings. Rational choice theory states that participation in terrorist activities is just that: a rational choice based upon one’s political and religious affiliations. Though it should probably not be said that people who kill other people are not deciding to do so, the factors leading up to that decision are not ration and are usually uncontrollable. Social psychology generally has a problem with assuming that people have free will, as ordinary people can be made to do horrific things such as shocking people to the point of perceived unconsciousness (Milgram 1963) using only the influence of an ‘authority’ in a lab coat. Other uncontrollable factors influencing radical Islamic martyrdom can include those of culture, family, and tradition. Familial political affiliation has been found to be powerful in determining the affiliation of young Islamic radicals (Post et al. 2010). The title of the article: “When Hatred is Bred in the Bone” conveys the message succinctly. Aggression, affiliation, and abhorrence can be transferred down familial lines. That being so, this factor in determining the likelihood of one joining a terrorist organization and subsequently committing terrorist acts is fairly determining and completely uncontrollable – as these things are not choices. Many individuals gain a sense of community and identity in groups such as those of the radical Islamic sects. Training for and completion of martyrdom acts accrues a great amount of respect and social reward from other who subscribe to these ideologies. Studies in social psychology have found that the identity found in membership of terrorist organizations is extremely influential on behavior (Rogers et al. 2007). These groups generate ethnocentrism, which defines each member as a part of the group (which is better than all other groups, of course). This framework also contributes to greater conformity. When the in-group becomes so specifically defined against out-groups, there is a movement toward greater in-group belief homogenization. People can be influenced to do things that are culturally normative and even celebrated, such as completing martyrdom missions. The group can also influence a person to do things they might not ordinarily do by gradually increasing the severity of the task. This is a strategy often employed in terrorist organizations, as newer members do tasks that are generally less demanding (and less morally reprehensible), then graduate to more taxing tasks. This can have a desensitizing effect for violence committed. The final theory relevant to the social psychological study of radical Islamic martyrdom is grievance/threat. This theory acknowledges the perspective of the martyrs. It generally asserts that those committing terrorist attacks have a different framing of their actions. The behavior is framed as “freedom fighting”,rather that malicious, unwarranted attacks as western society generally believes. Studies (Güss et al. 2007, Whitehead et al. 2008) have shown that many individuals in these groups believe that they are fighting for a righteous cause against the immoral, tyrannical force of powers such as the United Statesor Israel. The American occupation of Iraq long after Saddam Hussein was eradicated caused a great amount of grievance among civilians, ranging from improper conduct and violation of privacy to wrongful death. When the cause is framed as a righteous one, ‘terrorists’ are framed as martyrs. The threat of violence against a people, a religion, and a way of life can be an extremely powerful motivating factor in contemporary Islamic martyrdom. This factor of terrorist behavior is arguably the most influential in motivating people to act as well as turning suicide bombers into martyrs. The view of a conflict is dictated by the side on which one is standing, as the opinion on the actor in a suicide bombing depends on the perspective from which one is evaluating. The effect of suffering and pain on prosocial behavior: "The Martyrdom Effect" (Olivola et al. 2013)
Figure 2. Mean contributions (among all players) and mean estimated contributions (among those contributing) for each condition Experiment 2. Numbers underneath the bars indicate the sample size in each condition. Error bars represent ±1 standard error. 
Lecture on Psychology of Terrorism Concerning Identity: |
Annotated Bibliography
Bandura, Albert, Dorothea Ross, and Sheila A. Ross. "Transmission of Aggression Through Imitation of Aggressive Models." The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 63 (1961): 575.
This landmark study in social psychology investigated the influence of violent models up on aggression and violence in children. It illustrates a fundamental element of social learning: people watching other people to determine how to act in a situation. A large doll - the infamous "Bobo doll" was used as a target of behavior, whether violent or peaceful. Children were exposed to either aggressive interactions between an adult and the Bobo doll (where the adult would assault the doll) or non-aggressive interactions. The children would then be put in a room with the Bobo doll, and their behavior was then observed. Results showed that the children who had been primed with the violent interaction were then significantly more violent toward the doll than those in the control condition. These results show how humans can learn aggressive behavior from watching others (especially others in a superior or idolized position). This explains a great deal about how the etiology of aggressive behaviors on societal and interpersonal levels.
Bradford, D.T. “Early Christian Martyrdom and the Psychology of Depression, Suicide, and Bodily Mutilation.” Psychotherapy 27, (1990): 30-41.
The topic of psychology and martyrdom is discussed, with allusions to abnormal psychology as well as social structure. The author claims that the church was analogous to a family structure for early Christians. The church is referred to as the "mother." This implies a sense of belonging and social communion. There is also a personal relationship with God, as a father, with mutual love with the martyr and hatred for the enemy. This relationship would foster common beliefs and social learning of the common themes of the era. The author also contributes observations from studies about death anxiety and religiosity. Those of strong religious conviction were found to have more positive contemplations of death and the afterlife. These people experienced less apprehension in the face of death. These more positive views of death are applicable to martyrdom, as those who die for the faith would be those of the strongest belief, and therefore this reduction of death anxiety would ease their mission to die for God.
Güss, C. Dominik, Ma. Teresa Tuason, and Vanessa Teixeira. “A Cultural-psychological Theory of Contemporary Islamic Martyrdom.” Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour 37 (2007): 415-445.
The authors address the cultural and social roots of Islamic martyrdom in present-day (2007) Iraq and Palestine. A model of martyrdom is proposed to mirror the perspective of the subjects. This model refutes the idea that psychopathology and poverty are the causes of these radical acts, but asserts that there are greater social frameworks nurturing it. Among these causes are the social contexts of American occupation of Iraq well after the fall of the regime of Saddam Hussein and the Israeli/Palestinian conflict. Among the topics discussed are the cruelties and death of loved ones and revenge. Also, self-determination through dying for a seemingly important cause is important, as well as getting the positive feedback received in terrorist groups about the call to act. The leaders of these groups encourage the martyrdoms/suicide bombings by reducing cognitive dissonance about killing others for a religious cause, justifying killing, vigorous training, reward (both immediate and long-term), hatred and dehumanization of the enemy (a common tactic in genocide), as well as the spreading of responsibility (so no single individual feels completely guilty).
Horgan, John. “From Profiles to Pathways and Roots to Routes: Perspectives from Psychology on Radicalization into Terrorism.” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 618 (2008): 80-94.
The author presents that martyrdom (here called terrorism) is a complex psycho-social phenomenon that, in the past, has been viewed in ways that
are reductionist. He proposes that to understand terrorism and make informed implications for counter-terrorism, multiple stages of terrorism must be addressed. These phases include the entry into terrorism, active engagement, and disengagement. There are separate relevant psychosocial concepts and contributing factors to be assessed at each of these stages. Some relevant concepts in discussing the group influence on individual acts include the slow, increasing inhumanity of acts, the group support and reinforcement of ideals, the role switching often required, and the personal
prestige found in the acceptance of high-profile roles in terrorist organizations. Other risk factors include anger/frustration and the desire for revenge, unhappiness with current situation or unrest, feelings of communion or connectedness with victims, justification, and rewards (both social and otherwise) of membership.
Milgram, Stanley. "Behavioral Study of Obedience." The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 67 (1963): 371.
Arguably the most influential study in social psychology, this research examined obedience to authority. Following the atrocities of World War II, researchers were baffled by the influence authority could have on an individual's behavior. This study had participants believe that they were to be a "teacher" in a study on pain and learning. Participants were to be "teachers" administering word tests and subsequent "shocks" (that were not truly real) to a "learner" for wrong answers. The learner was, unbeknownst to the participant/teacher, actually a confederate who only acted as if they were being shocked. As the learner answered more questions incorrectly, the teacher was to increase the voltage of the shocks, with the highest voltage being labeled "lethal". As the shocks increased, the confederate learner began to protest and cry out, but the experimenter (authority) told the teacher to go on. An astonishing percentage of participants went on to administer most of, if not the entire set of shocks. The presence of an authority figure was integral to the continuance of shocking, and the more perceived authority there was (whether the experimenter was in a lab coat or not, for instance) also had a great effect on whether the participant continued as instructed. This study had extensive implications for society - it shows how ordinary people can be made to do things that they know are wrong simply because an authority figure tells them to do so.
Olivola, Christopher, and Eldar Shafir. “The Martyrdom Effect: When Pain and Effort Increase Prosocial Contributions.” Journal of Behavioral Decision Making 26, (2013): 91-105.
An experiment was conducted to relate the variables of pain/suffering and generosity (in a charity context). The study used multiple methods to test its hypothesis, and 5 separate studies were included. The studies were conducted in both laboratory and non-laboratory settings with both real pain and anticipated pain. The mechanisms of this interaction were examined as well. The first study measured the amount one was willing to give to a charity as a function of perceived pain/suffering, in which the results found that more perceived pain was associated with greater donations. The second replicated the first, only in a laboratory setting with real money and real pain. The third tested the mediating factor of attribute substitution strategy (equating the value of the donations with the amount of pain endured to get them), which was not a factor in decision making. The fourth experiment showed that beliefs about the meaningfulness of the cause partially mediated this interaction. Experiment five found that causes that
involved human pain and suffering (i.e. to fight world hunger) found greater support and more donations than others. These results show that there is a “martyrdom effect”, as pain and suffering of the advocate of a cause seems to have an effect on the perceived importance of the cause itself.
Post, Jerrold, J.D. Barchas, and J. Difede. "When Hatred is Bred in the Bone: the Social Psychology of Terrorism." Psychiatric and Neurologic Aspects of War 1208 (2010): 15-23.
This article highlights the social psychological roots of terrorism (mostly in reference to Muslim suicide bombers). There has been a theme in American rhetoric about terrorists concerning their mental health – it is assumed that there is some sort of psychopathology in the typical suicide bomber. The author strongly asserts that this is not the case. The likely social roots of these behaviors are discussed, including generational relationships. Both motivations to follow the teachings and affiliations of one’s parents, as well as to seek revenge upon those who have hurt one or one’s loved ones are central themes in this particular brand of martyrdom. Some may rebel against the regime one’s parents have affiliated with, as a result of damages or hurt inflicted on the individual. It is also clear that hatred can be socialized from an early age. A society that has a great amount of animosity toward another group of people teaches its children to harbor the same negative emotions and prejudices. There is also a sense of using martyrdom/terrorism to regain control in a context where individuals had lacked. Acts of terrorism are also always justified, being viewed as providing greater good than evil.
Robertson, Michael. “Books Reconsidered: Emile Durkheim, Le Suicide.” Australasian Psychiatry 14 (2006): 365-368.
The contributions made by Emile Durkheim’s Le Suicide, a sociological study of suicide in various cultures, are discussed. Though methodological failures are addressed, there are also valuable observations about different types of suicides. One, in particular, finds favor with the authors. This category of suicide is dubbed “altruistic suicide” by Durkheim. Altruistic suicide is one in which a person dies for a particular cause or social good that is greater than themselves. These suicides were prosocial and sought to solve problems through death. The authors assert that these suicides were still a product of despair, as others. The suicide found release, and sometimes even elation, in carrying out a death for an altruistic cause. The authors find this to be the most relevant contribution to sociological and social psychological theory from Durkheim’s Le Suicide.
Rogers, M. Brooke, Kate Loewenthal, Christopher Alan Lewis, Richard Amlot, Marco Cinnirella, and Humayan Ansari. “The Role of Religious Fundamentalism in Terrorist Violence: A Social Psychological Analysis.” International Review of Psychiatry 19 (2007): 253-262.
This literature focuses on the social psychological genesis of martyrdom/terrorist violence with an emphasis on religious factors. The author first addresses some of the theories currently held in the field including psychopathology, Rational Choice theory, identity and group membership/social
learning theories, and grievance and threat. This author puts a greater emphasis and importance on the social/group dynamics theories held in the field. Important points addressed include the ethnocentrism of terrorist groups (including that there is a defined in-group and out-group, as well as out-group homogeneity, as well as in-group belief homogenization). Social Identity Theory, in which one finds meaning in self-definition through group membership, is also implicated as an important contributing factor. Fundamentalism is also discussed in depth as a possible contributing factor, though most likely not the primary determinant, of terrorist violence/martyrdom. Overall, the author concludes that there is no one theory that can pinpoint the exact causes of radical behavior and‘freedom fighting’, however many social psychological approaches seem to have some empirical credence to their theories and assertions.
Victoroff, Jeff. “The Mind of the Terrorist: A Review and Critique of Psychological Approaches.” The Journal of Conflict Resolution 49 (2005): 3-42.
A meta-analysis method is used to review the current (as of 2005) research on the psychology of terrorism. The body of research in general is
critiqued, as well as several psychological theories addressed. The author criticizes the current research for being of poor methodology, as well as being purely theoretical in nature, without solid empirical data to support it. The psychological theories addressed include psychopathology theory. This sense of mental illness in terrorists is found to be highly unlikely and contrary to recent data. Another theory is rational choice theory, in which the choice to engage in this behavior is logical, controlled, and has a socio-political goal. It is criticized for not explaining the etiology of the behavior, as well as assuming that choices are absolutely rational (which they sometimes are not). Social theories such as social learning theory, the frustration-aggression hypothesis (an act of freedom against oppression), relative deprivation theory (in cases of economic hardship), etc. are discussed. There are also various other psychological theories included such as identity theory, humiliation-revenge, and cognitive theory.
Whitehead, Neil, and Nasser Abufarha. “Suicide, Violence, and Cultural Conceptions of Martyrdom in Palestine.” Social Research 75 (2008): 395-416.
The cultural roots of violence in what is considered martyrdom in radical Islamic groups is discussed. The perspective concerning the violence is important, as the social context of these terrorist acts promotes the conception of these acts as serving a valuable service. They are viewed as an act to restore peace or degrade a regime. Part of the justification of such acts is the reframing of the person conducting them as a martyr. This person is not necessarily a victim, but a hero. The author also asserts that a sense of obligation to a community to which one is heavily connected, as well as to the
homeland, promotes these radical acts as a way to preserve these valued ties. Violence as a more widely-accepted cultural construction is also
discussed.
This landmark study in social psychology investigated the influence of violent models up on aggression and violence in children. It illustrates a fundamental element of social learning: people watching other people to determine how to act in a situation. A large doll - the infamous "Bobo doll" was used as a target of behavior, whether violent or peaceful. Children were exposed to either aggressive interactions between an adult and the Bobo doll (where the adult would assault the doll) or non-aggressive interactions. The children would then be put in a room with the Bobo doll, and their behavior was then observed. Results showed that the children who had been primed with the violent interaction were then significantly more violent toward the doll than those in the control condition. These results show how humans can learn aggressive behavior from watching others (especially others in a superior or idolized position). This explains a great deal about how the etiology of aggressive behaviors on societal and interpersonal levels.
Bradford, D.T. “Early Christian Martyrdom and the Psychology of Depression, Suicide, and Bodily Mutilation.” Psychotherapy 27, (1990): 30-41.
The topic of psychology and martyrdom is discussed, with allusions to abnormal psychology as well as social structure. The author claims that the church was analogous to a family structure for early Christians. The church is referred to as the "mother." This implies a sense of belonging and social communion. There is also a personal relationship with God, as a father, with mutual love with the martyr and hatred for the enemy. This relationship would foster common beliefs and social learning of the common themes of the era. The author also contributes observations from studies about death anxiety and religiosity. Those of strong religious conviction were found to have more positive contemplations of death and the afterlife. These people experienced less apprehension in the face of death. These more positive views of death are applicable to martyrdom, as those who die for the faith would be those of the strongest belief, and therefore this reduction of death anxiety would ease their mission to die for God.
Güss, C. Dominik, Ma. Teresa Tuason, and Vanessa Teixeira. “A Cultural-psychological Theory of Contemporary Islamic Martyrdom.” Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour 37 (2007): 415-445.
The authors address the cultural and social roots of Islamic martyrdom in present-day (2007) Iraq and Palestine. A model of martyrdom is proposed to mirror the perspective of the subjects. This model refutes the idea that psychopathology and poverty are the causes of these radical acts, but asserts that there are greater social frameworks nurturing it. Among these causes are the social contexts of American occupation of Iraq well after the fall of the regime of Saddam Hussein and the Israeli/Palestinian conflict. Among the topics discussed are the cruelties and death of loved ones and revenge. Also, self-determination through dying for a seemingly important cause is important, as well as getting the positive feedback received in terrorist groups about the call to act. The leaders of these groups encourage the martyrdoms/suicide bombings by reducing cognitive dissonance about killing others for a religious cause, justifying killing, vigorous training, reward (both immediate and long-term), hatred and dehumanization of the enemy (a common tactic in genocide), as well as the spreading of responsibility (so no single individual feels completely guilty).
Horgan, John. “From Profiles to Pathways and Roots to Routes: Perspectives from Psychology on Radicalization into Terrorism.” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 618 (2008): 80-94.
The author presents that martyrdom (here called terrorism) is a complex psycho-social phenomenon that, in the past, has been viewed in ways that
are reductionist. He proposes that to understand terrorism and make informed implications for counter-terrorism, multiple stages of terrorism must be addressed. These phases include the entry into terrorism, active engagement, and disengagement. There are separate relevant psychosocial concepts and contributing factors to be assessed at each of these stages. Some relevant concepts in discussing the group influence on individual acts include the slow, increasing inhumanity of acts, the group support and reinforcement of ideals, the role switching often required, and the personal
prestige found in the acceptance of high-profile roles in terrorist organizations. Other risk factors include anger/frustration and the desire for revenge, unhappiness with current situation or unrest, feelings of communion or connectedness with victims, justification, and rewards (both social and otherwise) of membership.
Milgram, Stanley. "Behavioral Study of Obedience." The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 67 (1963): 371.
Arguably the most influential study in social psychology, this research examined obedience to authority. Following the atrocities of World War II, researchers were baffled by the influence authority could have on an individual's behavior. This study had participants believe that they were to be a "teacher" in a study on pain and learning. Participants were to be "teachers" administering word tests and subsequent "shocks" (that were not truly real) to a "learner" for wrong answers. The learner was, unbeknownst to the participant/teacher, actually a confederate who only acted as if they were being shocked. As the learner answered more questions incorrectly, the teacher was to increase the voltage of the shocks, with the highest voltage being labeled "lethal". As the shocks increased, the confederate learner began to protest and cry out, but the experimenter (authority) told the teacher to go on. An astonishing percentage of participants went on to administer most of, if not the entire set of shocks. The presence of an authority figure was integral to the continuance of shocking, and the more perceived authority there was (whether the experimenter was in a lab coat or not, for instance) also had a great effect on whether the participant continued as instructed. This study had extensive implications for society - it shows how ordinary people can be made to do things that they know are wrong simply because an authority figure tells them to do so.
Olivola, Christopher, and Eldar Shafir. “The Martyrdom Effect: When Pain and Effort Increase Prosocial Contributions.” Journal of Behavioral Decision Making 26, (2013): 91-105.
An experiment was conducted to relate the variables of pain/suffering and generosity (in a charity context). The study used multiple methods to test its hypothesis, and 5 separate studies were included. The studies were conducted in both laboratory and non-laboratory settings with both real pain and anticipated pain. The mechanisms of this interaction were examined as well. The first study measured the amount one was willing to give to a charity as a function of perceived pain/suffering, in which the results found that more perceived pain was associated with greater donations. The second replicated the first, only in a laboratory setting with real money and real pain. The third tested the mediating factor of attribute substitution strategy (equating the value of the donations with the amount of pain endured to get them), which was not a factor in decision making. The fourth experiment showed that beliefs about the meaningfulness of the cause partially mediated this interaction. Experiment five found that causes that
involved human pain and suffering (i.e. to fight world hunger) found greater support and more donations than others. These results show that there is a “martyrdom effect”, as pain and suffering of the advocate of a cause seems to have an effect on the perceived importance of the cause itself.
Post, Jerrold, J.D. Barchas, and J. Difede. "When Hatred is Bred in the Bone: the Social Psychology of Terrorism." Psychiatric and Neurologic Aspects of War 1208 (2010): 15-23.
This article highlights the social psychological roots of terrorism (mostly in reference to Muslim suicide bombers). There has been a theme in American rhetoric about terrorists concerning their mental health – it is assumed that there is some sort of psychopathology in the typical suicide bomber. The author strongly asserts that this is not the case. The likely social roots of these behaviors are discussed, including generational relationships. Both motivations to follow the teachings and affiliations of one’s parents, as well as to seek revenge upon those who have hurt one or one’s loved ones are central themes in this particular brand of martyrdom. Some may rebel against the regime one’s parents have affiliated with, as a result of damages or hurt inflicted on the individual. It is also clear that hatred can be socialized from an early age. A society that has a great amount of animosity toward another group of people teaches its children to harbor the same negative emotions and prejudices. There is also a sense of using martyrdom/terrorism to regain control in a context where individuals had lacked. Acts of terrorism are also always justified, being viewed as providing greater good than evil.
Robertson, Michael. “Books Reconsidered: Emile Durkheim, Le Suicide.” Australasian Psychiatry 14 (2006): 365-368.
The contributions made by Emile Durkheim’s Le Suicide, a sociological study of suicide in various cultures, are discussed. Though methodological failures are addressed, there are also valuable observations about different types of suicides. One, in particular, finds favor with the authors. This category of suicide is dubbed “altruistic suicide” by Durkheim. Altruistic suicide is one in which a person dies for a particular cause or social good that is greater than themselves. These suicides were prosocial and sought to solve problems through death. The authors assert that these suicides were still a product of despair, as others. The suicide found release, and sometimes even elation, in carrying out a death for an altruistic cause. The authors find this to be the most relevant contribution to sociological and social psychological theory from Durkheim’s Le Suicide.
Rogers, M. Brooke, Kate Loewenthal, Christopher Alan Lewis, Richard Amlot, Marco Cinnirella, and Humayan Ansari. “The Role of Religious Fundamentalism in Terrorist Violence: A Social Psychological Analysis.” International Review of Psychiatry 19 (2007): 253-262.
This literature focuses on the social psychological genesis of martyrdom/terrorist violence with an emphasis on religious factors. The author first addresses some of the theories currently held in the field including psychopathology, Rational Choice theory, identity and group membership/social
learning theories, and grievance and threat. This author puts a greater emphasis and importance on the social/group dynamics theories held in the field. Important points addressed include the ethnocentrism of terrorist groups (including that there is a defined in-group and out-group, as well as out-group homogeneity, as well as in-group belief homogenization). Social Identity Theory, in which one finds meaning in self-definition through group membership, is also implicated as an important contributing factor. Fundamentalism is also discussed in depth as a possible contributing factor, though most likely not the primary determinant, of terrorist violence/martyrdom. Overall, the author concludes that there is no one theory that can pinpoint the exact causes of radical behavior and‘freedom fighting’, however many social psychological approaches seem to have some empirical credence to their theories and assertions.
Victoroff, Jeff. “The Mind of the Terrorist: A Review and Critique of Psychological Approaches.” The Journal of Conflict Resolution 49 (2005): 3-42.
A meta-analysis method is used to review the current (as of 2005) research on the psychology of terrorism. The body of research in general is
critiqued, as well as several psychological theories addressed. The author criticizes the current research for being of poor methodology, as well as being purely theoretical in nature, without solid empirical data to support it. The psychological theories addressed include psychopathology theory. This sense of mental illness in terrorists is found to be highly unlikely and contrary to recent data. Another theory is rational choice theory, in which the choice to engage in this behavior is logical, controlled, and has a socio-political goal. It is criticized for not explaining the etiology of the behavior, as well as assuming that choices are absolutely rational (which they sometimes are not). Social theories such as social learning theory, the frustration-aggression hypothesis (an act of freedom against oppression), relative deprivation theory (in cases of economic hardship), etc. are discussed. There are also various other psychological theories included such as identity theory, humiliation-revenge, and cognitive theory.
Whitehead, Neil, and Nasser Abufarha. “Suicide, Violence, and Cultural Conceptions of Martyrdom in Palestine.” Social Research 75 (2008): 395-416.
The cultural roots of violence in what is considered martyrdom in radical Islamic groups is discussed. The perspective concerning the violence is important, as the social context of these terrorist acts promotes the conception of these acts as serving a valuable service. They are viewed as an act to restore peace or degrade a regime. Part of the justification of such acts is the reframing of the person conducting them as a martyr. This person is not necessarily a victim, but a hero. The author also asserts that a sense of obligation to a community to which one is heavily connected, as well as to the
homeland, promotes these radical acts as a way to preserve these valued ties. Violence as a more widely-accepted cultural construction is also
discussed.
